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THE BRASILIAN LANGUAGE

AND

ITS .A.G-C3-I.XJTIl>T.A.TIOnsr

BY

AMARO CAVALCANTI, L. L. B.

COUNSELLOR AT LAW, FELLOW OF VARIOUS LITERARY

AND KDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, EX-INSPKOTOR GENERAL OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

AND DIRECTOR OF THE LYCEUM IN THE PROVING;: OF

CEAKA (bRASIL), ETC, ETC., ETC.,

fc^

10(52—83

RIO JAiNEIRO

TYPOGRAPHIA NACIONAL l88^

/>

TO

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY,

DON PEDRO SEGUNDO

Sire !

It is a well known fact, that Your Imperial Ma)esty,during Your reign has been the constant Protector of the intellectual development and the general instruction of the country. Numerous in- stitutions, which Your Majesty's private liberality has so often assisted, give the most authentic proof of our assertion in this respect. Therefore, publishing this insignificant work, presently, the object of which is to contribute to the in- struction of the country and facts concerning it; I fulfil the agreeable duty of placing it, respect- fully, under your Majesty's August protection,

'X

in the hope, that your Majesty's generosity may not decline its acceptance .

It is, Sire, a sincere expression of the respect and profound veneration of Your Imperial Majesty, whom God may preserve.

YOURS VERY HUMBLY

'iO

4

:e^tie^:fj^c}:b

The principal object of the present elementary book is: (1) to verify if several opinions suggest- ed by philologists and linguists, as the peculiar characteristics of the so-called « agglutinative languages » are, indeed, found in the Brazilian language ; — (2) to contribute, by some infor- mations on the grammatical elements and pro- cesses of this language, for the progress of Com- parative Grammar.

« We use the terms « Brazilian language », as embracing the several dialects spoken in Brasil by the savage tribes, since the discovery of the country.

Among those dialects, the Guarany and the Tupy are the most important. They hold the same close relation, as is found between High and Low German. — Guarany was spoken,

principally, in the South-part of Brazil, and Tupy, along the coast, at the time of the discovery, and now, in the central parts of some provinces of the North, especially, in Para, Ama- zonas and in the border-territories.

« — The language of cultivated people, as it is known, is the Portuguese*.

Rio de Janeiro, December, 2, 1883.

KEY

TO THE PRONUNCIATION AND READING

VOWELS

a, e, i, 0, u, ( immarked ) have short sounds^ Bometimes scarcely perceptible in ending syllables.

/^ (upon vowel) raarkes long sound*

\ ( > » ) « broad sound.

\j (upon u) « a guttural sound, like the

Greek u.

/4^ (upon any vowel) markes nasal sound : — am, em, im, om, um.

f markes stress of voice ( accent ) upon certain syllables of words .

CONSONANTS AND DIPTHONGAL SOUNDS "will be indicated afterwards"

. PRINCIPAL ABREVIATIONS USED:

Lat Latin.

Ger German.

Eng English.

It . Italian.

Fr French.

Sp Spanish.

Port Portuguese.

Br Brasilian.

Sing Singular.

PI Plural.

Pers. . Person.

Prep Preposition.

Adv s . iidverb.

Conj Conjunction.

Interj Interjection.

Nom Nominative case.

Gen Genitive case.

Dat Dative ease .

Ace Accusative.

Abl Ablative.

i e Id est (that is).

Adj Adjective.

Pron Pronoun.

Poss Possessive.

Lang Language.

Pref Preffix.

Sf. Suffix.

rad radical.

cf confer (compare) .

lit literally.

ex: for example.

on . onomatopaic.

BRASILIAN LANGUAGE

CHAPTER I

CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES

1. •— Glottology divides the numerous lan- guages of the World, according to the peculiari- ties of their grammatical structure, into three classes : (1) Monosyllabic or Isolating ; (2)Agglu- tinative; (3) Inflectional or Polysyllabic.

These terms also represent three periods in the growth of languages, that is to say, that language, as an organism, may pass through three stages, as follows: (^),

(') Dr. H. Morris, Enylisk Accidence, pay. !3.

2 —

(I)

— The monosyllabic period, in which roots are used, as words, without any change of form.

In this stage there are no prefixes or suffixes, and no forraallj distinguished parts of speech.

The Chinese is the best example of a language in the isolating or monosyllabic stage .

« Every word in Chinese is monosyllabic; and the same word, without any change of form, may be used, as a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb or a particle . Thus, ^a, according to its position in a sentence, may mean great, great- ness, to grow, very much, very.»

« We cannot in Chinese (as in Latin) derive from ferrum, iron, a new substantive ferra- riuSf a man who works in iron, a blacksmith ; ferraria, an iron-mine ; and again, ferraria- rius, a man who works in an iron-mine ; all this is possible only in an inflected language. » (^)

In the languages of this last kind, the various relations of thought are declared by means of certain formative elements (suffixes and inflec-

ts) Dr. R. Morris, English Accidence, pag. 2.

k

tions) joined to root or to theme, as we see in the examples above.

In Chinese, on the contrary, such relations are declared by the simple disposition of words in the sentence. Thus, ngd ta mi, means « I strike thee, » and mi ta ngd means, on the contrary, « thou strikest me ; » fu, father, mu, mother, and fu-mu, parents (Fr. parents); shi, ten, eul, two, and eul-shi, twenty; i. e: two ten ; gin, a man, kiai, many, (collection, assembly, etc.), gin-kiai, men; huo, empire, cung, middle (or midst), kuo-cung, in the em- pire ; i. e: — the word, cung, joined to a noun, converts it into the locative case of the Indo- European languages. (■^)

(2)

^. — The agglutinative period. — In this stage two unaltered, or scarcely modified roots are joined together to form words; in these compounds one root becomes subordinate to the other, and so loses its independence : cf: — man-

(3) Max. Miiller, Science of Language.

kind, heir 'loom, warlike, which are agglu- tinative compounds.

So long as words keep their radical meaning, the language remains in its first period, that of roots .

But, since certain words, by losing their original or etymological import, have become mere signs of de7nvation, the language has reached to its second period, that of desinences, (terminations of word). (*)

The greatest portion of the languages, spo- ken in the World, remain in this second stage; and all of them form the so-called Turanian- group, which, in the present condition of science, might give the explanation of most important problems, if it were better studied by the liv- ing philologists.

According to Prof. Townsend, this group of tongues is found, first and last, to have rang- ed from Norway almost to Behring's Straits ; (°) and according to the opinion of Mr . Miiller, it embraces two great divisions : that of the North that of the South.

(*•) Max. MuUor, Science of Language, cit.

(8) L. T. TowiisouU (Prof, in Boston Wiiivcrsity) — The AH of Sjiieech.

The former, called sometimes the Urdl-altaic, is again divided into five sections: the languages of the To^guses, the Mongols, the Turks, the Finns, the Samoyeds.

The latter, which occupies the South-part of Asia, is also divided into four sections : the Tamul, the dialects of Tibet and Bhotan, the dialects of Siam and those of Malaca and Polynesia.

With the group of the agglutinative lan- guages are classed the Africaniongues, so-call- ed atonic, the words of which are mostly form- ed by means of prefixes, a characteristic, that distinguishes them from the Ural-altaiciongnes, which, as a rule, do not admit of the root of a word occupying the second place.

Still there must be considered, as belonging to the same agglutinative group, the numerous dialects or tongues of America ; and among these, tliose, spoken by Brazilian savages, present undoubtedly all the supposed essential charac- teristics of an agglutinative language, as we hope to prove beyond contest by our further illustrations .

3. — It is, certainly, too difficult for the lin- guist to establish a distinct and uniform clas- sification out of the speeches of those multitudes

— 6 —

of scattered races and tribes ; but it is just this want of uniformity in their grammatical forms or in their usages and applications, which con- stitutes one of the fundamental reasons of this group .

« They are speeches of nomadic people and of savages, and only, by this characteristic, they des tinguish themselves from the ^r^/an and Semitic languages. In these two families of tongues, « Aryan and Semitic » the majority of words and their grammatical forms were produced, at once, for all of them, by the creative force of one generation ; and it would be very difficult to abandon them, though their primitive clear- ness had been obscured by further phonetic alterations .

« The transmission of a language in such con- ditions would be only possible among people, whose history flows, as a large river, and among whom religion, laws and poetry serve, like dams, to bound the current of speech .

« But we know, that among nomadic people there was never established a true nucleus of political, social and literary institutions.

Their, so-called, empires were no sooner found- ed, than they were scattered, like sand-clouds in the desert : — almost no laws, legends, stories

and songs have survived the generation, that saw them rise (^) .

(3)

4f. — The inflectional period. In this stage roots are modified by prefixes or suffixes, which were once independent words.

In agglutinative languages the union of words, says Dr . R. Morris, may be compared to mecha- nical compounds, in inflective languages to che- mical compounds.

« I call period of flections, adds Prof. M. Miil- ler, that one, in which roots are blended in such a way, that none of them keeps a genuine and total independence, as it is found in the Aryan and Semitic families.

« The first period does not admit of phonetic alteration, at all.

« The second period does not admit of such al- teration in the principal root, but admits of it in the secondary or demonstrative elements.

« The third period admits of phonetic altera-

(6) Mr. MuUer, w. cit.

— 8 —

tion, both in the principal root and in the desi- nences (flections), »

In most living languages we find traces of all these processes, and thus are enabled to see how one stage leads gradually to another.

Take, for example, the following.

He is like God, =: monosyllabic He is God-Uke, = agglutinative. (*) He is God-ly, = inflectional.

GERMi^N

Mann ist frei, = monosijllabic

Er ist frei- mann, = agglutinative

Er ist frei-mannes (gen.), = inflectional.

By carefully inquiring, we should be able to discover similar instances in the Romance -lan- guages, although not so frequently, in relation to the monosyllabic and agglutinative forms.

^. — The very learned American linguist. Prof. Whitney, in his important book — « Life

(*) Dr. Morris, book ciU— pag. 3.

and Growth of language, » discussing on the subject-matter, says, as follows :

« Proceeding by analogy and taking, as a starting point, the Indo-European languages, we can state,— that what the remaining languages of the World may contain about the matter of flections and of forraative instruments y has all been elaborated, as in these languages, from the mass of a rude vocabulary, formed with entirely concrete words, which constitutes the primitive period of languages.

« If, however, it were possible to demonstrate the existence of languages, — which were brought forth at once, as inflectional; then, this opinion should be renounced . But very rigorous proofs would be required for making good such a de- monstration .

« Language is an instrument, and the laio of ihe simplicity of beginnings is applied to lan- guages,as it is to any other thing.

Each root must have begun by containing, (as it is still noted, now-adays, in certain mo- nosyllables under the character of interje- ctions,) an affirmation, an idea, a question, an order, etc., — and the tone and the gesture or the circumstances would complete their signi- fication . »

— 10

THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

O. — Among all languages, the Aryan or Indo-European family is the only one, which has been well studied by linguists, in the present condition of our knowledge of the matter . This preference of studies, which has brought forth the best results to science, is quite justified by the capital reason, that in that family of lan- guage sare found the richest scientific and literary monuments of the three classical languages of mankind, — Sanshrit, Greek, and Latin.

«In relation to the study of the other languages, «Semitic, monosyllabic and agglutinative » we may affirm, that our scientific knowledge about it is yet entirely unsatisfactory, and does not enable the philologist to prefer a conscientious decision on the very important problem of their reciprocal relations among themselves, and to the Aryan family.

« Leaving aside the group of isolating Ian- guages, represented by the Chinese and by the Indo-Chinese, who lead their lives, separately from other people; it is true, that the greatest

— II —

ignorance prevails, relating to the agglutinative tongues, although these be spoken by innume- rable nations in the five parts of the World .

The only circumstance, which may somewhat excuse such a fault, is the lack of literary monu- ments, that provoke the curiosity and wish to know them .

T. — By reading, sometimes, the best authors on the subject, we have found frequent hypothe- ses, the ones, suggested by mere logical indu- ctions, the others, based on informations, not Avell established, and most of them, wanting of every scientific criterium. And although it may seem strange to some, these facts, which came under our observation, have constituted for us the primary motive for writing the present ele- mentary book .

In comparing the grammatical forms and the lo- gical processes of some other languages, with the usages and manners of the common speech of Brasilian savages ; we arrived at the well esta- blished conclusion, that in the uncultivated lan- guage of these people, not only are there found grammatical forms, used regularly and in accor- dance with logical principles ; but also, that the same language offers an evident confirmation of the various hypotheses, which have been ad-

12

vanced by philologists, when intending to cha- racterize the agglutinative family.

We have not yet any settled fact, relating to the ethnographic origin of the Brasilian savages, nor to the particular point of their primitive or derived speech. No accurate inquiry or suc- cessful investigation exists on this very impor- tant matter.

It is, however, a fact of the easiest intuition, that an immense result would issue for history and science, if it were possible to prove, in a satisfactory way : — « from what country these millions of individuals who came to live in Ame- rica emigrated ; — in what century this great event happened ; — and what speech, what religion, what degree of civilisation they have brought with them to the lands of their new abodes. »

For want of these important data, the only way to obtain some regular information, relating to the language of our savage tribes, is, undoubt- edly, to study and analyse their forms and processes in the state and conditions, in which they have come to our knowledge and actual observation. As a guide, or as auxiliary instru- ments, to such work, we have nothing more, than those books of prayer or instruction, pre-

i3

pared by missionaries, about four ou five gene- rations ago, which have become in a great part antiquated .

Words and their uses arise to meet some wants of the time ; they disappear, when no longer needed .

From all these circumstances it results, that this elementary work will be framed from no abundant materials ; and, therefore, not only it will be of more difficult execution, but also, as a natural consequence, not entirely satisfactory.

Notwithstanding, we hope to be able to avoid every error in the statement of principles and their dependent facts.

THE BRASILIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS POSITION

S. — The Brazilian language exhibits itself under an aspect, quite uncultivated. The people, who speak it, do not possess, at the best, the knowledge of the aphabetic signs; they are, simply, savages, the most complete type of human ignorance.

Nevertheless, by studying all the organism or

— 14 —

the structure of such savage speech, and making rigorous analysis of its forms, used regularly in the expression of thoughts ; it results, to envi- dence, that it has passed the monosyllabic period, and has kept itself, long since, in the agglutinative stage, which is owing, perhaps, to the want of in- dispensable culture, which enables it to reach the richest stage of a language, — that of inflection.

It is a fact sufficiently proved by experience and by the existing writings on the subject, that the morphology and the syntax of the Brazilian language have been kept unaltered, since the discovery of the country up to the present days. The grammatical elements and forms in usage, which, in this respect, were soon noted by the missionaries, at the time of their catechising among the savage tribes, so far back as the 16° century, are still almost identical with these, which may be observed in the speech of the remaining people of the same race.

It is certain, that the greatest alteration is noted in its phonetic forms, and, consequently, in its vocabulary which is, now, very different from that of the times of the discovery and the conquest of the country.

Besides the natural phonological laws, which govern the frequent changes of every vocable;

— i5 —

with respect to Brazilian savage people, there occurred another circumstance, that ought to influence and to increase this result, that is : — that these people were, in general, composed of nomadic tribes; and it is easy to imagine, — how gradually from differences of climate and of natural scenery, — from differences in the various objects of perception, each day renewed, wha- tever they might be, there should result diffe- rences of speech, especially with respect to the ivo7'ds, already in usage.

O. — As a point, deserving especial remark, we must declare, now, that in various instances of usages of the Brazilian speech, there are still found certain processes, pertaining to the isolating period, — as for example, — the in- variable place of words in a sentence, which, as it is known, constitutes almost the entire grammar of the languages of this kind. But this circumstance, though important, is not sufficient to decide against our opinion, given before; because in Brazilian tongues are found also all the other characteristics, which are, generally, required in the very agglutinative languages.

— « Agglutination, writes Mr. Miiller, does not mean only, that in the grammar pronouns

— lb —

are, so to say, glued to verbs in order to form the conjugation, or prepositions to substantives to form the declension; — because it would not be a distinct character of nomadic tongues, only, for both in Sanskrit and Hebrew the conjugation and the declension were originally constituted, accor- ding to the same principles.

But that which distinguishes the Turanian languages (agglutinative) is, that the words, which formtheir conjugation and declension, are always susceptible of easy decomposition ; and although in many cases the terminations keep their modificative value, as independent words, yet one sees, that these are modificative sylla- bles, quite distinguished from the roots, to which they are joined. (^)

— The hypotheses advanced by the very learned linguist, M . Miiller, are entirely identi- cal with those, which Prof. Whitney has veri- fied in the Scythic tongues, that he considered, as a complete type of the agglutinative family,

« By this term, adds Whitney, one means to say, that the elements of several origins, which compose tlie Scythic words and their forms are

(") Science of lang> cil,

— 17 —

less blended, less closely aggregated ; and that, therefore, they keep themselves more indepen- dent, than in the Indo-European languages.

« The root, as a rule, remains invariable in all derived words, and each suffix also keeps its form and invariable application : — and from this results, on the one side, great regularity of forms, on the other, great complication .

For instance, in Turkish, lar(or ler) is the form of the plural; — to it are joined terminations ov particle-suffixes, — which form the cases of the singular number, and there may still be inserted pronominal elements, indicative of pos- session ; thus: — ev, house, e^-c?en, of a house; ev'tlm-den, of my house; — ev^ler, houses; ev'ler-um-den, of my houses.

« The verb presents an analogical and still more striking example. — There are a few modi- fying elements , that may be inserted , either isolated, or grouped in different ways, between the root and the terminations, to express pas- sivity, reflexion, reciprocity , causality, nega- Hon, impossibility, etc .

« The distinction between verbs and nouns is not quite so original and fundamental, as in the Indo-European languages. The words used, as verbs, are scarcely distinguished from nouns, that

are used predicatively , on their appearing com- bined with subjects or possessive pronouns.

« The Scythic adjective is deprived of flection^ like the English adjective; and there is the same lack of gender in nouns and pronouns, as in Persian.

« Words, which indicate relations, and con- junctions, are almost entirely unknown; the combination of the terms of a sentence is made, as is natural, «wherein verbs aro not quite dis- tinguished,» by means of declensions and verbal nouns. » (^)

- — Except this last observation, relative to the words, which express relations and con- junctions, which are very numerous in Bra- zilian languages; we think, we are enabled to affirm, that in this speech are clearly and, perhaps, better realised all the characteristics, that Mr. Whitney has reputed essential to every agglutinative language.

From the clearly made analysis and the ex- planations, which will be given in the following chapters, we hope, the truth of our proposition will be firmly established .

<») 'Life & Growth of Lang. cit.

— 19 —

CHAPTER II

PHONETIC PillNCIPLES

10.~A fact, generally noted by linguists, is — the rapidity or facility, with which the dialects and tongues of people, deprived of literary monu- ments, are altered or changed .

Literature serves, so to say, as the standard^ after which the spoken language is modelled Ml order to be preserved in its integrity .

— In relation to the savage tribes ofBrasil, the frequent change of their vocabulary was one of the leading circumstances , which were noted by the catechising missionaries, who, very often, expressed their admiration at the fact, that a dialect had undergone, within a short time, after it was knwon, so many alterations, as tp become quite a different one.

They have observed, that the names of the most common objects themselves, as, for in- stance, — father, son, etc, were, sometimes, so much altered by pronunciation, that they form-

— 20 —

ed different words, and, sometimes, were replaced by synonyms of remote relation.

All this was, indeed, very natural.

« One must not, says W. von Humboldt, con- sider a language, as a dead product formed, once for all : it is an animate being and ever creative. Human thouglit elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence; and language is a manifestation of this thought.

« An idiom cannot, therefore, remain statio- nary.

« It changes, it develops, it grows up, it forti- fies itself, it becomes old, and it reaches decre- pitude. »

11. — According to these principles, it is rea- sonable to admit, that there must be many words, used among each class of the Brasilian nomadic tribes, which were not understood by the rest.

Besides this, simpler causes, such, for instance, as result from the use of synonymous terms, would be sufficient to produce radical word- changes.

We know that, whenthereare several equiva- lent terms in a language to express the same idea or object, it is very common, that the dialects, — issuing from this language, select diversely.

— 21 —

among such equivalent terms, and^ as a rule, one of these becomes the prevailing one in one dialect, another in another, to the neglect and loss of all, but the one selected. (^)

— We insist on this point, though sufficiently proved by constant observation, as the funda- mental reason, or the cause, that most con- tributed to the formation of the numerous dia- lects, which composed the Brasilian speech, at the time of the discovery and conquest of the country.

According to our humble opinion, all Brasilian tribes spoke tongues of one general family, al- though much altered by frequent phonetic chan- ges, owing, principally, to the above-mentioned causes.

Among the leading reasons, which enable us to emit such a proposition on the nature of Brasi- lian tongues, there exists one, that, as we think, should be regarded, as of the most legitimate inference, viz : — that in all Brasilian dialects, of which there are grammars and vocabularies, some of which were composed, since the colonial period , we find the greatest agreement in gram-

(1) Townsond, book cit.

22 —

matical forms. Especially, with respect to the morphological and syntactical processes, their identity is an evident fact, beyond all possible contest.

SOUNDS AND LETTERS

1^.— The letters of the Latin alphabet, which may be used to represent the phonetic elements of the Brasilian language, are the following :

a, b, d, e, g, h, i, k, (=c, q,) m, n, 0, p, r, s, ( = Q,) t, u, X, y. f )

« The letters — f, j, 1, v, z — find no employment in this lang. »

When we have well understood and compared certain little discordances, which are found in the authors, most of them owing to diversity of characters, chosen, as representatives of sound, for instance, the one having used the Spanish alphabet, the other the German, another the

(s) We call Latin alphabet — in the state, wherein it passed to the Romance languages.

— 23 —

Portuguese, and yet another, the French and so on ; — we can, rightly affirm, that the alphabetic characters, above indicated, have been, as a rule, considered sufficient and quite apropriate to the phonetic usages of the Brasilian language. (^)

Consonants

13.— We preferred this letter — 5, instead of —^c before e, i, and g, which have been adopted by some writers.

It is observed, that the hissing of s is contrary to the savage's pronuTici^tion. But we cannot admit of such a reason, as a good one; because it cannot be denied, that the syllables ga, ce, ciy have the same phonetic value, as, sa, se, si, in Latin pronunciation.

Moreover, the s has in itself the advantage of replacing the two characters — g, c, ( the latter before e, i), and, therefore, it will be used in this book, as representative of the sound c, in the word city.

(3) Cf:— A. G. Bias, Diet. ofTiipy Lang ;Montoya, Arte, Vocabulary and Treas'iry of Guarany Lang ; Figiioira, Gram, of Brasil. Lanij ; Dr. Couto Magalhaes, The Salvage; Mamiapi, Gram, of the Kiriri Lang., etc. etc.

— 24 —

G g, is only used, with a hard sound, before a, 0, u, as in the ^ovdi— garden. This letter keeps the same sound in ending syllables, and sometimes becomes nasal, as we shall see here- after.

H h, before a vowel, is the sign of a soft aspi- ration.

R r, has always a very soft sound, something like the r in the French ^v ovd— f aimer ai, I will love.

X X, is pronounced, like sh in the word she, or the German sch, in the word schaf, sheep.

Y y, is used to represent a sound, like iiy as the i consonant in Italian, or the German ; in the words— /agfc?, Jdger, Jeder.

Nh. This compound sound is perfectly equi- valent to the French gn in the word mignon, delicate.

€ The other consonants^ respecting which we do not make any observation, will be pronounced, as their correspondent ones in the English al- phabet. »

Ba, he, ho. — These syllables, in some words, are nasal, that is, they are pronounced, as if they had an m before : =mha, mhe, mho .

Na, ne, ni, no — are, also, pronounced with

— 25 —

as strong a nasal sound, as if they had a d be- tween the consonant and the vowel :=nda, nde, ndi, ndo.

Vowels A

1/5. — a (unmarked) has the brief sound of the Portuguese a in the preposition para = to and for, or of the final a in the word — America ; ex: marika, the belly. In final syllables, this short sound sometimes becomes almost undistin- guishable, as : — mendra, to marry.

a has a long sound, as the a of the Portuguese word fado, fate, or of the a in father; ex: — taudf the town.

a has a broad sound, almost like two aa; ex: — para, the sea (or a large river); abd, creature.

a has, finally, a nasal sound, like the Portu- guese compound am ; ex: — Tupd, God ; kunhd, woman.

E

e (unmarked) has a brief sound, sometimes almost undistinguishable, like the e in the word some ; ex: petima, tabaco ; modme, to arm.

— 26 —

e has the long sound of the French e in the word ete, the summer ; ex : ike, here, kete, to or for (prep.)

e has a sound, like the first e in the word where ; ex : ipeka, the goose ; — ete, much (excellent) .

e has, finally, a nasal sound, as the Portu- guese compound em ; exx-^hehe, yes.

i (unmarked) has a brief sound as in the word %ll\ ex: ihdk, heaven.

t has the nasal sound of the Portuguese com- pound in, ex : — miri, small.

[ See I/, before. ]

o

0 (unmarked) has the brief sound of the Portu- guese 0 in final syllables, almost undistinguish- able, as in the verb — amo, I love ; ex: ixeho, to me ; — yo (particle, which expresses the reci- procal action of the verb.)

27

6 has a long sound, almost — u, as in the verb to go, or rather in to prove ; ex : md (particle, formative of active verbs) ; pd,the hand.

6 has a sound, like the diphthong aw in the word — law ; ex : sokd, Brasilian bird ; ikb, to he, (=Port. estar).

0 has, finally, a nasal sound, as the Port, com- pound— on; ex: — modd, to steal.

u

u (unmarked) has a short sound, like u in full; ex: mu, brother.

u has a long sound, something like oo in too (adv.) ex: tasuba, fever.

u has a very peculiar sound, something like the German u, or rather the Greek u ; ex ; mura^ wood.

« This sound of ii is, generally, represented by the grammarians of the Brasilian language by y^ which they have called the full i. »

i?' has, finally, a nasal sound, like the Port, compound — um ; ex: pituna, night (dark or black.)

28

Diphthongs

1^. — The principal diphthongs of the Bras, lang. are the following : —

Al

It sounds, like the German diphthong ai in Kaiser, the emperor ; ex : mairi, city.

All

It sounds like oio in the adverb — now; ex: aud, who ?

EI

It sounds, just like the alphabetic sound of a, in the word fate ; ex:—eima, spindle.

Ku

It has the sound of the Portuguese diphthong do in the words ceo, heaven ; ^veo, veil ; ex : monMu, to confess.

— 29

oi

It has the sound of the Italian oi in the pro- nouns noi, we; voi, you ; ex : mokoi, two.

ui

It has the sound, which results from the two short vowels u and i, being pronounced toge- ther ; ex : pui, slight or delicate.

[ We fini in Brazilian words other examples of two or even three successive vowels; but they are, in general, pronounced distinctly, and, so, do not make diphthongs or triphthongs pro- perly so-called.]

TABLE OF THE ALPHABETIC SOUNDS

Consonants

Gutturals. Palatals..	Sharp	Flat	Aspirate	Nasal	Trilled
K={c,q)	G	H Y,X S	Ng.Nh N^'ivd M,Mb	R
Dentals . . Labials . .	D B	T P

3o —

Volwels

a	a	a	- an
e	e	e	e
I 0			6
6	6
u	l^	u	u

(*) [ See Key to the pxonuiiciatian and Teading,

PHONETIC ALTERATIONS

IC— It is to be recollected, that the Brasi- lia!! language is the speech of savage tribes, destitute of every notion of letters and of their representative value in pronunciation ; and, the- refore, it is unnecessary to premise, that we are not able to state all the rules, which govern the phonetic developments of their language. Yet, by making a patient analysis of its vocabu- laries, grammars and other literary informations we could obtain ; we have come to ascertain in this language some of the general principles, which are of frequent application in its phonetics.

— 3i —

For instance^ although it is a language spoken by savage people, as we said, it is liable to gene- ral laws, which produce phonetic alterations ; viz : greater facility of pronunciation, and better harmony of sounds : — the former, a physiological principle ; — the latter, a eupho- nical principle.

From these two principles results, that har- der sounds pass successively into softer, and unpleasing sounds become sonorous or eupho- nical.

So far as we can see in the matter, in the pho- netic alterations of Brasilian languages, prevail the following rules :

PERMUTATION OF SOUNDS

(a)

IT. — The savage tribes of Brasil very often confound certain consonants in pronunciation, especially, when they belong to the same organ, as p, m and b ; n, and d; r, s and t.

It is also necessary to note, that the most fre- quent changes take place in the processes of agglutination ( composition and derivation by

— 32 —

prefixes, and suffixes, or juxta-position ) ; ex: Tdpe= Tdba, town, -\-pe, =sup^, (prep.) to, — to the town ; — moraukepe == morduke, work, labor, 4- pe = yepe, one or the first, — Monday, that is, the first working-day.

re)

IS. — When the pronouns of the first and second persons sing. — xe =se, (^land my) ; — ne = re, (thou and thy) — are followed by some word beginning with t, this is changed into r ; ex: — tatd, fire, — se or xe-ratd, my fire ; tuba, father, ne-ruba, thy father.

(i;

10. — If the possessive pronoun i, his, her and whose, etc., is followed by a word, begin- ning with s, this is changed into x; ex: Siyra, aunt, — i'Xiyra, his or her aunt; Siy, mother, — i'Xiy, her or his mother ; sb^ to go, — i-xd, his going ; sui, of, — i-xui, of him or of her; supe, to, — i'Xupe, to him, etc.

33

(«)

!5^0. — When, however, the s is preceded by another vowel of different sound, it is frequently changed into r, ex: Sana, hsiiry — se-rdua, my hair ; — re-rdiia, thy hair ; — saisu, to love, — Tupd raisu, to love God.

(«)

Nasal sounds are very frequent in Brasi- lian speech; and, as a general rule, when a preceding vowel is nasal, the following must also be nasal ; ex :

Nalid, that, amo, other ; -— nahd-dmo, that other. As it is seen, the a of am.d becomes nasal, because of the a of nahd.

SUPPRESSION AND ADDITION OF LETTERS

(1)

!^1. — Aphoeresis. Sounds (letters) are dropt, very frequently, in the beginning of words. — «Accent plays an important part in these chann ges ; tmaccented syllables, lohich precede the accented one, are the most liable to drop off. »

-34-

Take, for example, the following :

Urdpdra, how ,=murdpdra; — «murd, (wood) + para, to bow, bowed or crooked) ; — pe, (prep, corresponding to the dative and locative case,)= supe, in, or to ; ne or re ('pron.) = ine or iri, thou or thy; — xe (pron.)= ixe, I or my, etc. etc.

^^, — Syncope. There also are found various instances of letters dropt in the body of words, most usually in the agglutination of roots with suffixes or prefixes ; ex : tduasu, a hog, = tanhdudsu (tanha, iooih. -\-uasu, long) ; koatia- sdba, painting, = koatidra, 4- sdba ; kameri- kdra, a kneader, = kamerike + dra [38, 39] .

•ii3. — Apocope. The suppression of letters in the end of words is most generally noted in un- accented syllables ; ex : akdn, the head , = akdnga; — men(d)dr, to maiYTjy=menddra; — pdtdr, to wish, = pot are; etc. etc.

O)

^^» — Prothesis, Letters, as a rule, are added at the beginning of a word, to produce a nasal or more euphonical sound; ex : — mbae, thing, =bae; — ikatu-rete, very good, = katu, good + etCf much or very; imura, woodi, = mura ; — epya, the heart, =pya; — epo, the hand, =p6.

— 35 —

!^^. — Epenthesis. As examples of addition of letters to the body of a word, we are only able to present the cases, in which some euphoni- cal letters are used to be intercalated, either between the root and the suffix, or between the personal prefix and the verb. These cases are, indeed, very numerous; but regularly depending on certain rules.

— Thus, in the verbs, which begin with one of these syllables — ra, re, ro, ru is intercalated the suffix gue, between the personal prefix (*) and the verb in the third person sing, of the Present Indicative ; ex : xa raso, 1 carry ; re-ras6, thou carriest ; o-gue-raso, lie carries ; etc.

— In many other instances it is found, that a word ending in a vowel and followed by an- other, beginning, likewise, with some vowel, one euphonical letter is also intercalated, most commonly an r ; ex. : — se, my, — oka, house ; — se-(r)oka, my house; ne, thy, — oker, to sleep, ne (r)oker, thy sleeping, etc.

SO, — Epithesis. It can be affirmed, that the addition of letters at the end of words are, either modifying elements, as suffixes and preposi- tions, or some distinct words hj juxta- position.

(*) Soo in l!io a. S5 what means personal prefix.

— 36 —

CHAPTER III

PARTS OF SPEECH

ST.— In order to give a more complete infor- mation about the grammatical forms and pro- cesses of the Brasilian language, we will treat of each class of words, separately.

According to their distinct functions in a sen- tence, the words of this language may be arrang- ed under the following headings:

(1) Noun.

(2) Adjective.

(3) Pronoun.

(4) Verb.

(5) Preposition (rather, — Postposition ) .

(6) Adverb.

(7) Conjunction.

(8) Interjection.

— All of them are indeclinable.

There is no article, definite or indefinite.

-37-

ACCIDENCE OR THE FORMS OP WORDS

5^^. — The changes, which words undergo to mark case, gender, number, comparison, tense, person, etc. are called inflections.

The inflection of nouns, adjectives and pro- nouns is called — declension; when applied to verbs, it is called — conjugation.

In the inflectional languages, as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc, the various relations, which a word may express in a sentence, are indicated through different changes in the ending-syllable of the word.

Thus, in order to declare the various rela- tions, in which the word — God — may appear in a sentence, as : —

— God is love ;

— God*s love or love of God ;

— love to God ;

— oh! God;

— to love God;

— love comes from God, etc ; — in such a language as Latin, for instance, all of them could be plainly expressed in this way :

— 38 —

— i)ew5 (nominative.)

— Dei (genitive.)

— Deo (dative.)

— Deum (accusative . )

— Deus (vocative.)

— Deo (ablative.)

If, instead of these logical relations, we had to express the gender, the number and the com- parison (degree of quality) of a noun, it would be, likewise, sufficient to change only the no- minal inflection, as, for ex:

— Deus, God, — Dei, Gods ;

— Vir, a man, — Viri, men ;

— and so also : —

Deus, God, — Dea, Goddess ;

u^quus, horse, — jEqua, mare; eto.

fSJO. — In the modern European languages, as German, English, Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese, although of the same stock, as the Greek and Latin, but not so thoroughly syntheticalthemselYes, and which are, therefore, called — analytical languages, the various ideal relations of nouns in a sentence are expressed by the use of prepositions, whilst the other relations of gender and number, etc, continue, in a great many instances, to be destinguished likewise, by nominal inflections ; ex :

39

— It. sing, amico, friend, — plur. amid, friends; — sing, figlia, daugther, — plur. figliey daugthers ; cf :

— Fr. sing, ami, — plur. amis;

— Sp. & Port. sing, amigo, — plur. amigos;

— Fr. sing, fille, — plur. filles ;

— Sp. sing, hija, — plur. /izja5 ;

— Port. sing, filha, — plur. filhas,

— « The letter~5 — , which we find in English, French, etc., replaces the inflection of the ori- ginal coses.

— Gender is equally indicated, in many in- stances, by regular inflections, which distin- guish the masc. & fern; ex :

— Ger. Gott, masc. (God) ; Gottin, fem . (Goddess) ;

— It. amico, masc, arnica, fem.; cf :

— Fr. ami, masc, amie, fem.;

— Sp. & Port, amigo, masc, amiga, fem. etc.

[The Italian words ' 'given as examples'' have the same meaning, as those taken from the other languages ; and so, it is unnecessary to repeat the corresponding translation in English to each example.]

- 40 —

Gender, number and case of nouns

30. — Such changes at the end of nouns, as the aforesaid of the Indo-European languages, are entirely unknown in Brasilian languages, the morphology of which is governed by quite different principles .

Nouns are always invariable ; and, therefore, number, gender and case can be only expressed by adding some especial words, called — forma- tive elements or suffixes .

31. Gender. — In the Brasilian speech the distinction of gender is only applied to living objects; and can be marked in two regular ways : either by different words, designating each one sex, or by the use of postpositive words, which mean essentially the male and the female.

(^) — By distinct words, for each sex; ex:

Apegdua, man, kunhd, woman ;

Mu, brother, rendera, sister ;

Tuba, father-, siy, mother; etc., etc.

C^) By postpositive ivords; ex :

Idudra-apegdua, the dog; Idudra kunhd, the bitch ;

Tapir- apegaua, the ox; Tapir-kunhd, the cow ; etc., etc.

— 41 —

3!!2« — The latter way of marking the gender is also used in the modern European languages, when the names of animals are epicene, as for ex:

— It. aquila maschio, a male eagle, — aquila femmina, a female eagle;

and likewise : — Port, aguia macho, aguia femea, etc, etc. In English the process of agglutination in this respect is kept in its original form ; ex :

— He-goat and she-goat ; man-servant and ivor/ian or maidservant, etc.

The only difference of the English form con- sists in placing the demonstrative of gender before noun, and not after, as in the Brasilian language .

3S. — Number. Nouns may be applied to one or more objects, and this constitutes the singular and the plural.

In the Brasilian language the plural is express- ed by the use of a postpositive particle — eta, which means in itself a collection or multitude of things ; ex :

OUa, a house, oka-eta, houses ;

Andma, a relative or friend, anama-etd, some relatives or friends ;

Apegdua, a man, apegaua-etd , men .

— 42 —

« It must be added, that the suffix itd is un- doubtedly the same word seta (by aphoeresis) which means multitude, or great quantity, as a noun, and many or several, as an adjective. »

34t. — Cases . The noun being always in- variable, as we said before, in the Brasilian language, there cannot be of course such in- flections, as the cases J to express the various ideal relations of the words in a sentence.

These relations are only expressed by means of prepositions, which are always placed after noun, and, therefore, might rather be called postpositions .

From this general rule we must except the possessive case (genitive), which is expressed, as in English, by placing the name of the possessor before that of the object possessed.

In the folloving table we give a complete illus- tration of cases :

Nom.	Deus
Gen.	Amop Dei
Dat.	Deo
Ac.	Deum
Abl.	Deo

Goi =Tupa

God's love or love of Go^=T upSi-saisu to God ==Tupci supe

God t=Tupa

from Goi t^Tupd sui

-43 -

« The especial relation, which is expressed in Latin by the so-called, ablativus de materia, is equally expressed in the Brasilia n language by the same process, as the possession; ex :

Oka, house, itd, stone, — itd-oka, a houso made out of stone, or a stone-house. »

Diminutive and augmentative

3^. — In the Brasilian speech, no diminutive nouns, properly so-called, are found, as eaglet, gosling, etc ; they are, however, expressed, either by means of suffixes, or by regular adjec- tives, placed after the noun modified.

The only suffix, which denotes diminuition is — y or I, and the adjective, used with the same signification, is — miri, small ; ex:

Pird, fish, — pirciy, or pird-mirT, a small fish;

Putyra, flower, — putyra-mirt , a small flower.

« The suffix I ov y seems to be a contracted form of the same adjective mirl : [See Aphoe- resis, ^1 .]

30. — The augmentative is, likewise, formed by an especial adjective, placed after the noun. This adjective is turusu, great, large or broad,

— 44 —

which, according to euphonical principles, takes the forms — asu, osu, uasu, goasu ; ex :

Pirdy fish, — pird-uasu, a big fish ;

Para, the sea, -^pard-goasu, the Ocean, that is, a broad sea.

DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF NOUNS OR ADJECTIVES

3T- — « The primary elements and signi- ficant parts of words are called 7'oots. A root or radical is that part of a word, which cannot be reduced to a simpler or more original form. According to their origin, roots are, either pre- dicative or demonstrative . (^) »

These terms correspond to the expressions — verbal and pronominal roots, used by the learn- ed linguist, F. Bopp. f)

The root may be modified by endings, called suffixes, which form derivatives, as, rich-?!/ ; by particles, placed before the root, called prefixes.

{}) Dr. ^Aovrhf English Gram.

(*) Bopp. Gram. Comparie des laiig. IndO'Europeennes v.

-45 -

as, /br- bid, un-iviie ; two words may be placed together to form compound-words, as, black- bird. (^)

All these processes, in the formation of words, we find operating in the Brasilinn language.

Although we are not quite able to distin- guish and explain the roots of many words of this speech; yet, we hope to present numerous examples, which shall illustrate the subject- matter .

Noun-sufflxes

3^- — Aba or dwa (usually with a s, as, sdba, saua) means the place, or the mode, and, sometimes, the time and the instrument of an action ; ex : —

« Moseroka, to baptize,— moseroka-sdua, the occasion, or the place of the baptism (baptistery);

« Katu, good,— katus aba, goodness ;

« Mdete, to respect or to venerate, — moetesd- ba, respect or veneration ;

« Petybon, to help, — petyhon-sdba, help, or assistance, etc.

(3) Dr. Morris, cit.

-46-

30. — Ara or uad (sometimes, also, preceded by an s,) joined to verbal root, means the actual agent or subject of an action ; it corresponds to the Latin participles in ans and ens, as, amans, regens; ex:

Moseroka-sdra, or moseroka-uad, the person who baptizes.

At othertimes, it means the action itself, as the English Present Participle, as, for instance, — the thinking persons, (=who think) and also the act of thinking ; ex :

Morypdra (moryb = toryh, to caress), a loving man, or the act of loving itself.

4LO. — Bora or pora (b = p) means: (1) a person who lives or exists habitually in a place, or doing the same thing or office; v2)an object na- turally contained in, or depending on another; ex :

(1) Kad, wood, — kaapdra, who lives always in the wood;

» Mbasy, sickness, — mbasy-Mra, a diseased man ;

» Mondd, to steal, — monddpdra, a robber;

(2) Monde, prison, — mode-pdra, a prisoner ; » Naml, ears, — nami-pdra, ear-ring.

'> Py, foot, — pij-pora, a foot-step. 41. — Rama 01^ arama (joined to the radical of a transitive verb) forms verbal adjectives,

— 47 —

which correspond to the Latin participles in — rus, — as, amaturus ; ex :

Saisu, to love, — saisurdma y 3ihoui to love.

If the root is of an intransitive verb, the verbal adjectives correspond to the Latin participles in duSy as, amandus ; ex :

Yopueka, to revenge oneself, — Yopueka- rdma, about to be revenged. — « Rama is a postposition = to or for . »

^^. — Yma, joined to any predicative root, noun or adjective, expresses the want or lack of the object contained in the word ; ex: —

Sesd, eye, — sesd-yma, blind;

Katu, good, — katu-yma, bad, that is, without goodness ;

Moserokaudra, a baptised man, — moseroka- udra-yma, a man not baptised;

Akanga, the head, — akanga-yma, decapi- tated .

4L3. — Oera (often with some euphonical letter, before) joined to verbal roots, means a past agent, — the person who has exercized an action in a past time; ex :

Kapik, to comb , — kapikdera, the person who has combed .

The same suffix, joined to noun, modifies it in two particular ways; either converting the noun

- 4^^

into an adjective, or making it express a thing, which existed once in a different mode or in better condition ; ex :

(1) Soerum^ jealousy or distrust, — soerum- oera, a jealous o ? distrustful man ;

(2) Akanga, the head, — akang-dera, the skull of a dead man ;

« Pi, the skin of a living animal, — pire- ra, the skin, which has taken from a killed animal.

« Taba^ a village, — tapera (p = b) a ruined and abandoned village.

^4L» — Odra or iidra, (joined to the original form of a verb) forms the Past Participle ; it cor- responds to the English — (e)d; ex: moseroka- odt^a, the baptised person \—iukd, to kill, iukd- udra the killed man ; etc.

[The letters within()in a word are mere eupho- nical sounds , which are very frequently- used in the processes of derivation and word- formation of Brasilian languages.]

4t^. — We have just indicated the suffixes, most commonly used in the Tupy dialect, almost all. of which are still in use, now-adays.

In old language, « Tupy — Guarany, » we ^nd many other formative toords, the most of

— 49 —

which, either were totally antiquated, or are now very rarely employed.

For the better understanding of some deriva- tive or compowid-'words, we will preseiit several instances of those other suffixes :

— Aba, means « creature », an human being.

— Bae or mbae, — means « thing » = the Latin 7^es. When joined to verbal roots, it forms the Present Participle. Besides , this bae is the same demonstrative root — ae, which serves, now, as the pronoun of the third person singular.

— Pyra, joined to the radical of verbs, has the same meaning, as the suffix udra, we have spoken of before, [ no . 44 ].

AGGLUTINATION OF WORDS

'^iC — Rad. Ae (a demonstrative) he, she, it, they, this, these, that, [those, etc.

Aebae {(b)ae, the same), himself, herself, themselves, etc.

« The savage repeats the word to give greater energy to its m'aning or his affirmation. »

— 5o —

Ae-sui (sui, prep.), — from there, from that place.

Aeketp (kety=io)y — to that place.

Aerame (Vawe=when),^ — then, at that time.

Aerese (rese = from or for), — for this, or therefrom.

Aerire (rire = after), — after that or there- after.

Aerire-miri (mirt=Bmdl\, little), — soon after.

'^T. — Rad. Ar, to be horn, to occur, to hap- pen, to appear, or to fall, etc.

Ara, — time, day, hour, occasion, and also — the World.

Araaybaete (ayba = bad, 4- ete, much), — storm. « This word ayba is pronounced some- times, as — auba and ayua: »

Arakatu (katu = good), — opportunity.

Arakud (kud = the waist), — at noon.

Arosu (6su=gresii, much), — to fall or to grow plentifully.

Ara'(r)angabay — watcher clock; (ang, spirit or life, + aba, thing ; = a thing possessing the life ofti?ne).

— Ar, used as suffix: — to take or the act of taking .

Ara (ara=idra), — the agent, one who does an action in the present time .

— 5i —

Idra) — the owner, the actual possessor of some thing-.

Ibytuar (ibytu, wind) — to fall the wind.

Ayurdr (ayur, the neck), — to take by the neck.

Mar-dar, (mard-=mbaa8y ,^ pain or ache), — to fall sick or to catch sickness.

Fodr (p6, a hand), — to take or to catch by the hands.

Puar (pu ovpy, the foot) , — to catch by the feet.

Pituar, (pitu=pituna, night), — to grow dark or night.

Tekoar (tekdt—cvLsiom or manner), — to imi- tate or to take the manners of another.

Tedar, (ted, death or the act of fainting), — to die, or rather, to decay, to fail.

Tapeydra (ta = taha, the town + peyara, the pratical man) , — who knows the way to the town, the head, the chief or guide.

^^. — M. Iby=ipy,- — the land (earth), origin, beginning, etc.

Ibykodra (kodra, a hole), — ditch, grave, etc.

Iby-ketii (kety == toward), — downward.

Ibijoka {oka, house), — a wall, a thing made out of land.

Ibypeba (peba, long or flat),— a tract of low lands.

— 02 —

Ibyrete (the r is a euphonical letter, + ete, much), — main-land.

Ihype {(pe = in, prep.), — down, on the soil, the ground.

Ibyriri (rirT, — to shake), — an earthquake.

Ibytyra (atyra, a heap), — a hill or mount.

Ipysuigodra (sui, prep. = from , -^ godra t=ara, byProthesis, anagent), — original, native or primitive.

4tO. — M. Ihdk, (also written ludk), — heaven, the firmament, the atmosphere.

Ibaketingaf (tinga, white), — clouds, snow.

Ibakepora (pora, somebody ), — who lives in heaven .

Ibdkepe-O'So (pe = to, prep. -J- o-so == he goes), — salvation, — i e: who goes to heaven.

Ibakepetoryba (ioryba, merry), — the celes- tial glory, i e: — merry in heaven.

^O. — M. Ig, (also written — If/), water.

Igdba (dba, suffix), — Hme, a thing within the water .

Igdra (dy^a, suffix), — a canoe.

Igapo (apo, spread), — marshy.

Iggatu (gatu=katu, good), — fresh water.

Igsererusdba (sereru == sareru, to flow, to slip,-|-sa5a, suffix), — a channel

53

IgUom^a (kodra/a hole), — a fountain.

Igyusei (yusei, wanting), — thirsty.

Igotil (tu, — onomatopaic, = imitating the noise of the fall of water), — an waterfall.

Igtykir (tykir, onomatopaic,=the drip-drip of falling water), — a drop.

^1. — Rll Pe, way, track, path, etc.

Pekoarneeng (hoameeng, to show or declare), — to guide.

Peydra, ( {y) dra=dra, sufF. ), — a pratical man, a guide.

Peosu (osuy great, large), — a road.

Peku, — long .

Perupy (rwpy, prep. '= through), — by the way.

d!S.— - M, P6, the hand, a finger, etc.

Poakanga (akanga, the head, or the end of the hand), — the fingers.

Poakanga^osu (see — osu), — the thumb. • Podi, — to beckon.

Poapem, — the nail **of a finger or toe".

Podpar (dpar, crooked, tortuous),— crippled or lame.

Poapyka, — the fist.

Popytera, (pytera, middle, the central portion of a thing), — the palm.

Pook (ok=^to take), — to pick up the fruit.

54

^3-— Rad. pya, the heart.

Pyakatu (katu, good),— of good manners, peaceful.

Pyakatu-rupy (rupy, prep.= by),— obliging man, or affability.

Pyakatusaba, — frankness, kindness.

Pyaosu, fosi^= great), -^courage, audacity.

Pya-'yba, — (yba = auba, bad, cruel), — bad affliction or rage .

Pyubarupy, (rupy=bj or for), — furiously.

^4L» — M. Sdba = rdba, — the human face.

Sdba{di)pyra (pyra = atyra, a heap), — the front.

Sdbasij (sy =asy, to be in pain), — spleenfull, or sorrowful,

Sobauba (ub= auba, bad), — pale.

Sdbaosu (osu, great), — frown, or ugly coun- tenance.

Sdbapeteka (peteka, a blow), — a slap.

Sobapokeka fpokeha, — to wrap), — to muffle oneself up.

^^. — Ral Teko, mode, rule, custom, state, or condition, etc.

Teko-asy — (asy, which causes pain), — rigour.

Tekdayba (aijba, bad, cruel, etc.), — torment, prison, peril, etc.

— 55 —

Tekdayba-goara (goara = ara, agent), — the guilty.

Tekoayba-moapir (mo = to make or cause, -{-pyr= pyre, more), — to aggravate the guilt.

Tekdayba-pdra — (see pdra) , — the condemned to punishment.

Tekdkatu (= good state) ^ — peace.

Tekdmonhd (mdnhdM make), to constitute, to state.

Tekdpdranga (poranga, beautiful), — good fortune or success.

Tekdpoooi (poxi, bad), — vice.

Longer -agglutinative words

^6. — R^l Abd, creature, human being.

Abd-angaypdba-osu-ete, — an tyrant, a cruel man. (Abd, — creature, + ang, the soul or the spirit of man, + ayp = ayba^ bad, evil, -i-ba =.dba, — suffix — meaning thing, +052^, great, + etd, — very or very much ; — literally, = a man of too great bad soul.

Abdkuduayma, — a foolish or silly man.

— 56 —

{Aba,— cveaiure,-^ liuduba,— learning, -^-ymciy without ; — lit. =a man without learning.

Abdmenda-sd7^ayma,Si bachelor, unmarried. ( Aba — (as before) + menda = menddra, to marry, -{-sara = dra, an agent, + yma, not, without ; — lit.=a man married not.

Abdoba-monhangdra, — a tailor. (= Aba (as before) + oba, clothing, + monhd, — to make, 4- dra, an agent ; lit.=a man who makes clo- thing.

Abdp6robebya(r)yma, — a proud or an arro- gant man. ( — Aba (as before ) + poro, so- mebody, a person, + be ^==pe, (prep.) to, -hbya =zpya, heart, H- ^w^a, without; lit.= a man without heart to anybody.

Abdpdroiukdsdra , — an assassin or murderer. (Abd — (as before) + poi^o (idem) H- iukd, to kill,H- (s)dra, an agent ; — lit..=a man who kills some body.

Abd-Tupd-moetesdra, — a religious man. (Abd (as before) + Tupd, God, -f- moete, to venerate, + fsjara (as before); lit. = a man who venerates God. And again: Abd'Tupd- moetesara -yma, — an unbelieving, an atheist.

Abai/baosUf a destoyer. (Abd (as hehre)-\-yba = aijba, eviljH- osu, great; lit.=a great maker of evils.

^7

i»T. — M. ltd, stone, iron or metal, in general .

Itdpomonde (p6, hands, -\-monde, prison), — manacles.

Itdfrjete (eie, very or excellent), — steel.

Itd-Tupd'Sui (Tupd sui, from God), — an aerolite, — a stone which has fallen from God.

Itdbaboka (babdka,—onom8doi^3iic word), — millstone.

Itdbebui (bebui, light, puffy) — the pumice stone.

Itdkantim (kantim, Si peak, or sharp-pointed), — boar-spear, pike.

Itd(g)oasu (see oasu), — a rock.

Ita-yua (yello r metal), ~— money.

Itd-yua-ydra or Itdyubaydra, (*) (ydra,t^Q owner), — a rich man.

Itdyubareru (reru, a vessel ), — treasury, a coffer.

Itd-nimbo (nimbo = inimo, a thread ), — brass -wire.

Itdpeba (peba, flat), — a plate of metal.

Itdpeku (peku, long) a lever, an iron -bar.

Itdpud (pud, standing up or erect), — a nail.

(') In very numerous instances the b is fonnd instead of u, and erciprocally.

58

^^,— M. Mura, — wood, or tree.

Muradka (dka, a point or peak) , — a branch.

Mura-bdka,— spinning wheel, made out of wood.

Murakamby (hamby = akdmby, the groin, i e: the angular curve between the legs), — a pitch- fork.

Murakorera, — brushwood.

Mura-y (y^ diminutive),— sprig, or stick.

Murapeba (peba, flat), — a board.

Murapehu (peku, long), — a long wood.

Mura(r)akanga (akangay the head), — the shoots.

Murayra (yra, honey), —bee honey, i e: honey of wood. '

^9.— Mopya (mo, to do or to make do, 4- pya, heart.) [53, ae]

Mopya-ayba,y — to aggravate, to offend, to make one be sorrowful.

Mopya-katUy — to console, to make one be satisfied .

Mopyd-katuaba-^upe, (pupe, prep. = in or within), — to please, to be pleased.

— Monhd or monhang, - — to make, to fabri- cate or to create.

Monhangdba, — fabric, factory, etc .

— b9 —

Monhangdra , — working-man , a manu- facturer .

Yemonhang, — to grow, to prosper ; ( — ye, (particle). [Seeno. ov],

Moyemonhang, —to ingender, to generate.

00« — Mi. Nhee or nheeng, to speak, to discuss, to talk, to converse, etc.

Nheeng-dpba, (ayha, bad), —to injure, to de- fame, or to reproach .

Nheengayha-ete, (ete, very, much, too), — to slander, to curse.

Nheeng -s ant dn, (santan, — loud), — to speak loud .

Nheeng-sese, (sese = rese, prep., by), -— to bind by word, to bespeak.

Nheeng-etdy (ete, much, excellent, etc.), — to speak with power or authority.

Nheenga, — speech.

Nheengaidra (idra, owner, an agent), — interpreter .

Nheenga-o-meeng, ( omeeng , to giYe) ,— to promise, to compromise oneself.

Nheengapora-poranga (pora^oranga, nice or fine thing), — gallantery, corteous behaviour, polite address.

Nheenga-poxi (poxi, evil), — obscenty.

Nheeng dr (dr, to take), — to sing.

— 6o —

Nheenga-sdra, — a singer.

Nheengaba, — a song.

Ol. — M. NUlOy intio, ti or M^^— no, not, nor.

Nitiokangaba, the immensity ; ( — kang = akanga, head, top, + a&a, thing) ; = a thing without head or end.

Nitio-paya-oae, — an orphan ; ( — pmja,— a corruption of the Port, word pde = father, + oae, he or she ; = a person without father.

Nitiogoasu (goasu, great, difficult, etc., ), — easy.

Nitio(g)oatd'Oae, ( {g)oatd, to walk or to be in motion ), — immovable.

NitiO'iapysd'Oae (iapysd, to ear ), — a deaf man.

Nitio-iporoae (ipor = poro , something re- siding within), — unoccupied, hollow.

Nitiomdme (mame, where), — no-where.

NitiO'posanga (posanga, medicine), — irreme- diable.

Nitio-posy (posy, heavy), — light, slight.

NitiO'Oiko-katu, — to behave badly; ( — oikd= to be, + katu, good, = to be not well).

OS-. — Pdna, corruption of the Portuguese word — pa^^o, cloth.

Pdna-ayba, — clout, rags.

— 6i —

Pdna^monhangaha, (aba, suffix , meaning the place, the instrument of the action), — weaver's-loom .

Pdna-monhangara, — a weaver, the maker of cloth.

Pdna-peteka (petekd, iohesii), — a. washing- woman, — who beats the cloth, in washing it.

63. — M. Tupd or Tupdna, God.

Tupdberdba (berdb, to light), -— a light- ning.

Tupd-iande-reJio-bebe-meengara, — Provi- dence; that is, — God who gives to us the mode of living.

Tupd-nheenga (see nheenga), — the Gospel.

Tupd-nheenga-kotiasdra (kotiasdra, who discribs or paints), — an evangelist.

Tupd-nheenga-o-mosem (o-mosem, to pu- bhsh) , — a preacher .

Tupd-uatd (imtd, to walk), — a religious procession.

Tupd(r)dka fc)^^,' house), —church.

Tupd-oka-miri (miri, small), — a niche.

Tupd-rokdra (rokdra or okdra, street or a line of houses),— church-yard.

Tupd-potdba (potdba, a present), — alms.

Tupdratd (raid = tatd, fire ),— purgatory, place of punishment.

— 62 —

Tupdrayra (rai/rat=.tayra, son), a christian, a son of God.

Tupdreko (rekd=tekd, law, precept, etc.),— religion .

Tupd-rehd-yahisaba, (yahisaba, error), — superstition .

Tupdrehb-monhangdra, — blessed, that is : « Tupdrekd, religion, + monhangara, who exercises or makes ;=a man who practises the re- ligion . »

Tapd-yi or Tupd-yg (yg, water), — holy water.

Tapandr (ar, to take), — to communicate, to receive the Sacrament.

64.— M, ^ Tdtd, fire.

Tatd^aVj (ar, to bring forth, to take, etc.),^^ to set on fire, or to take fire .

Tatd'berdb, — flames.

Tatd'{g)oasu, (oasu, gre^ii), — a stove or bon- fire.

Tatdmiri, (miri, small),— a spark of fire.

Tatdpunha, — live coal.

Tatapunha-osu, — a fire-brand.

Tatdrendy, (rendy, io shine),— light, illumi- nation.

Tatdtinga (tingay white) smoke, i e : white fire.

— 63 —

Tatdtinga-monha (monha, to make), — to smoke or to be smoking.

6^. — Ml. Yuru, the mouth.

Yuruayba (ayha, bad), — slanderous.

Yuruhanheme ( kanheme or hanhumo, to disappear), — to be silent, or to grow dumb.

Yuruiai (idi, interg. of admiration), — to wonder, to gaze.

Yuruyib (yib = moryib, to caress), — civility, courtesy.

Yuruosu (osu, great ), — foul mouthed, hard- mouthed (horse).

Yurupoxi (poxi, bad), the same, as yuru- ayba .

Yurure, — to ask, to beg, to pray.

Yurure-katu (katu, good), — to intreat.

Yururesese (sese = rese, by or for) , — to intercede .

Yurure-rure (frequentative, — rure=yurure, to pray), — to insist, to urge.

Yurure^rure-katu, (katu, good), — to pray humbly.

Yurure (s)aba, — a petition, deprecation.

Yururesdra, — one that is always begging .

Yuruseem (seem, sweet), — civil, corteous, affable; i, e: sweet mouth.

— b4 —

ONOMATOPAIC WORDS

OC — 111 the Brasilian language are, cer- tainly, numerous words created by onomatopoeia ; and we offer, as examples, the following : —

Akaiia, — a bird, which, when singing, re- peats this word .

Ae, — this or that, and there (=the voice of one, who indicates a thing).

Bebe, — to fly, (the beating of wings) .

Guene, — to vomit ( = the noise of one who vomits) .

lau-ara, — dog, {=idu, the barking, -f- ara, suffix, an agent, etc.)

Mobaboli, — to grind, (hdbok, the crack of the cane crushed in the sugar-mill).

Moposdk, — to shake a liquid (water) within a vessel.

Mopok, — to break, fpd^,=the cracking of something, which is broken up) .

Mosdk, — to to dig up, (sdk, the blow of a thing pulled violently).

Motdk, — to beat, (the sound of a blow).

Pixdna^ — -cat, (the cry of a cat.)

"—65 —

Pipik, — to sprinkle, (the sound of splashing water) .

Ta^d^— fire, (the craclvling of flames).

Yuric-haru (yuru, mouth, + karu, the noise of mastication), — to ruminate.

CHAPTER IV

ADJECTIVES

O*^'. — In most of the modern languages of the inflectional group, adjectives, in the same way, as nouns, have difi'erent forms of endings (flections), according to the gender and number of the sub- stantives, with which they agree in a phrase or sentence .

The Romance languages, principally, still pre- sent almost the same inflections, corresponding to the gender, as they w^ere in Latin, from which they are derived .

Take, for instance, the following :

Latin — bonus, masc; bona, fern.; bonum, neutr. (good.)

66

Italian— buono, m3LSc.; buona, fern.; (there is no neuter gender . ) (^)

French — bon, masc; bonne, fem.; (there is no neuter gender.)

Spanish — bueno, masc; buena, fem.; (there is no neuter gender . )

Portuguese — bom, masc; bda, fem. ; (there is no neuter gender.)

Latin — totus, masc; tota, fem.; totum, neuter, (the whole).

Italian — tutto, masc; tutta,iQm.\ (the neuter wanting) .

French — tout, masc; toutte, fem. (the neuter wanting) .

Spanish — todo, masc. ; tdda, fem. (the neuter wanting) .

Portuguese— todo, masc; toda, iQm.\ tudo, neuter.

Latin — iste, masc. ; a, fem. ; ud, neuter, (that).

Italian — questo, masc; questa, fem.; (the neuter Wanting).

French — ce ou cet, masc ; cette fem. ; ( the neuter wanting) .

(*) The neuter gender was almost quite abolished in the Romance- tongues; nevertheless we find some cases therein, as the above mentioned.

-67-

Sp. — este, masc; esta, fem. ; esto, neuter.

Port, — este, masc. ; esta^ fem. ; isto, neuter.

We find the same equivalent forms of all Latin adjectives or pronouns of three endings, which passed into Romance tongues ; — viz : —

« Unus, a, um, one.

« Ullus, a, um, any at all.

« Nullus, a, um, none at all.

« Alter, a, um, one of two.

« Ille, a, ud, that other; etc, etc.

ACCIDENCE OF BRASILIAN ADJECTIVES

OS. — But in Brasilian languages the prevail- ing system in this respect is quite opposite. Adjectives are, without exception, invariable, like nouns.

In this point they offer a complete likeness with the adjectives of English , from which, however, they entirely differ in relation to their place in a sentence . In English the general rule is, that the adjective is placed before the noun, whilst the Brasilian tongue proceeds just in a contrary way .

— 68 —

In this last language the word, expressing substance, must precede the \Vord of quality or of relation .

Thus, for instance, this phrase : — a good friend, in Brasilian can only be said — andma katu, =: friend good .

Gender and number

OO. — For want of distinct forms to mark gender and number the adjective can appear in a sentence, with nouns of every gender and number ; ex :

Mu poranga, fine brother;

Rendera poranga, fine sister;

Oka katu, a good house ; oka-etd katu, good houses ;

Kunhd poooij a bad (or ugly) woman; kimhd" eta powi, bad women, etc.

Degrees of quality or comparison

yo« — Comparison is called that change of form, which the adjective undergoes to denote degrees of quality or quantity.

- <>9 -

The comparative is formed by placing the ad- verb-suffix— pyre, more, after the adjective, and the postposition sui, from, after the latter term of comparison; ex : Paul is better than Peter, = Paul katu pyre Peter sui, — word for word : — Paul good more Peter from .

As to the peculiar use of the postposition — sui, from, to denote the relation between the two terms of comparison, we find a very similar form in the Italian language, in which the same sen- tence above would be, as follows : — Paolo e megliore del Pietro,='Pd,\x\ is better from Peter. If the comparative is of inferiority, as less py^udent, less fine, etc. it must be formed by means of the word miri, small or little, followed by the same SidYevh pyre ; ex: You are less fine than John,=penhe pe poranga miri pyre John sui; — literally = You, yourselves, fine little more John from .

This adjective miri is equally employed, as an adverb, in sentences, like these : — I slept little, = xa ker an r/iiri; I walked little, =xa uatd an miri, etc.

"YhQ superlative is ^ likewise, formed, by placing the particle ete, very or much, which takes the euphonical letter r, if it is preceded by some vowel; ex: poranga, pretty, — poranga(r)ete,

^ 7o --

very pretty; katu, good^—katufrjete, very good,

etc.

— It is unnecessary to observe, that these manners of iorming the comparative and the su- perlative are, in general, used in the modern European tongues.

But the placing of the particle (adverb of quantity) after the adjective is an idiomatic usage, of which we will speak further on .

NUMERALS

Tl. — Comparing the authors, we find some discordances of opinion in relation to the nume- rals, which were used by Brasilian savages. The question is this: — up to what number could they count?. . .

— It appears, however, for sure, that, in general, they did not count objects, individually, above the number five, which was expressed, among several tribes, by the word p6, — a hand or the five fingers .

In the old documents, concernimg this [point,

— 71 —

the writers affirm, that the savages used only the following numbers :

BRAS. ENGL.

lepe or oiype one

Mokoi or mokuen two

Mosapur or mosapeire three

Irundy or mokoi-mokoin (repeated) . four

Fd, xepo (properly, — my hand) five

By repeating these numerals they could ex- press greater quantities of objects, as, for instance: pomokoT, ten, =two hands; xepo — xepy,iYQnij, =m\) hands and my feet.

*X^. — Nevertheless we must add, that some living tribes in North- Brasil, owing, perhaps, to their commerce with white people, use, at present, the numerals of greater quantity, as we can see in the following examples :

BRAS. ENGL.

Oaxiny five

Mosuny six

Seie (apparent corruption of the

Portuguese — sete — ) seven

Oise (apparent corruption of the

Portuguese — oito — eight

Oisepe{=oise, eight,-\-iepe,one) nine

Peye ten

Peiyeiepe eleven

— 72 —

After ten begins the process of repetition, as in Latin; ex: twelve — peye-mokoT; — thir- teen, — peye-mosapur; — twenty, mokoi-peye ; thirty, — mosapur-peye ; etc, etc.

lepe papasdua, one hundred, (properly a great quantity) — and again : — mokot-papa- sdua, two hundreds ; — peye-papasdua, one thousand, and so forth

ORDINALS

T3. — The ordinals are formed out of the

cardinals, by the suffix — uara [44]; ex:

m

BRAS. KNGL.

Iepe(r)udra fi^^st

MokoTuara second

Mosapurudra third

Irundyudra fourth

Oaxinyudra fifth

Mosunyudra sixth

Seyeudra seventh

Oiseudra eighth

Osepeudra ninth

Peyeudra tenth

And so forth .

-73 - CHAPTER V

PRONOUNS

^'^, — In the Brasilian language there are found the pronouns — personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, possessive and indefinite, perfectly distinct, both in forms and in uses; the most important peculiarities of which we are about to note .

TS, — Personal pronouns. These have no dis- tinction of gender.

There are three persons: — the person who speaks, called the first person; — the person spoken to, — called the second person ; — the person (or object) spoken of, called the third person.

These persons are represented by the pronouns:

BRAZILIAN ENGLISH

Ixe or xe I

Inde, ine orne Thou

lande or iane (=ia, I -{-ne

thou) TFe, = I and thou

Ore (exclusively) We, and not you

Pee or penhe .• . . You

Aetd or aitd They (*)

(*) This second form of Iho plural — ore or oro is a peculiarity of Brasilian languages, or rather^f all American tongues ; it moans —we oxclusevely, that is, we without you.

— 74 —

These forms of the personal pronoun are kept identical, whether they be the subject or the object of a sentence . It is true, that sometimes the particle — bo is found, joined to the pronouns of the first or of the second persons singular, denoting the relation of the dative case; — ex: Ixebo, to me ; — indebo, to thee .

But this particle — ho — , we suppose, to be the same contracted ^Ye^oBiiionpe (postposition) , which is used to express such a relation ; cf: — iocupe, to him or to her, = i, his, her or hers, -f. p^=: sup6, (by Apheresis) — to; — kdpe, to the plantation, = ko,— plantation, + pe, to ; tape, to the village,=^a&a, village, (by Syncope) + pSy to ; and also : — oreM (b=p) to us,=ore, we without you, and be=pe, to ; etc.

That which remains to be observed on personal pronouns, will be treated of in a proper way, when we have to speak of verbs.

'T'O. — Demonstrative pronouns. There are three demonstrative pronouns : —

Koahd, this ; = ko, here, + ahd=uadf an agent, — the person here ;

Nhahd, that ; = ni, not, '^ahd=koahd, — not this.

Nhahd amo, that other ;=*i/ia/ia, that^+amo, — another .

-75-

These pronouns correspond exactly to the Latin pronouns — hie, iste, ille, or to the Portu- guese — este, esse, aquelle, which keep their original Latin signification. They have no distinct gender, but they take the plural form by the postpositive particle — etd, like nouns; ex; — koahdetd, these ; nhdhd-etd, those : nhdhd- amoetd, those others.

When the demonstratives are employed, as adjectives, they do not take the suffix of the plural number; because, in this case, they are always in- variable and must be placed before the substantive, with which they agree in the sentence; ex:

Koahd (rjd^jthis house; — koahd (r)oka-etd, these houses;

Nhdhd kunhd, that woman ; — nhdhd ku- nhdetd, these women ;

Nhahdamo kise, that other knife ; — nhahd amo kiseetd, those other knives .

TT. — Interrogative pronouns . The interro- gative pronouns of this language are :

Aud, who ? — It is only applied to person, like its correspondent in English, and is invariable in every case ;

Mad, what ? — It is also invariable, and only applied to things. — « Mad means, precisely, thing = Latin res, or Italian — cosa .

76

It is known that in Italian the word cosa may be used, as interrogative pronoun ; ex : cosa fate, or cosa dite, = what are you doing, or what are you saying? = in Bras. — mad-ta peemdnha, or mad-ta penehee ?.

The particles td, tahd, sera are used, as mere signs of interrogation.

T^. — Relative pronouns. As relative pronoun is found only this word — uad, who ; it is invariable and serves for all genders and numbers.

Uad is the same suffix, which means an actual agent, as the Latin ans, ens, or it is the subject of an action, as we may see in the instances, given before; [no. 39].

The relative uad has yet another idiomati- cal application : it is always placed at the end of the sentence; ex : — have you the arrow which my brother sent ? = re-reko serd ouoa se mu mundu-an uad ? — word for word, — you have the arrow my brother sent which ?

•^'O.^ — Possessive pronouns. These are iden- tical with the personal pronouns, as follows :

Se or we, my and mine .

Ne or re, thy and thine.

Ae or i, his and her (s), its.

lane, our and ours .

— 77 —

Penhe or pee, your and yours . Aeta or aitcl, their or theirs.

« The possessive of the third person is very fre- quently represented by an t, which seems to be a contracted form of ae = aa, he, she, or his, hers, its, as was seen in the foregoing example ».

Possessive pronouns must be placed before the noun, with which they agree; but they do not undergo any particular change to correspond in gender and number. — [See no. es]

^O. — Indefinite pronouns. It is our opinion, that most of the suffixes, which are aggluti- nated to predicative or verbal roots, are, un- doubtedly, indefinite pronouns. It is certain, that some of them have lost their original significa- tion, but many others keep it still in a clear and independent way. Thus, for example :

Aucl, used also as interrogative pronoun, means, precisely, a person or human being; c/!*—

« Inti-aud, nobody; = inti, not, -{-aud, body;

« Maud,^YhoeYev:=mad, aught, +awa, body.

« Yepeaud, each one, =i/epe, one, +am body.

Aba, creature. We think this word, iden- tical with — aud, scarcely modified by pronun- ciation ; of:

^78-

« Nitio-abd , nobody, = nitio , not, + abdy person ;

« Amdabd , another ; = amo, other, + cibd, person .

—As indefinite pronouns, properly so-called, we now find these :

— Amd, other, others. From this are formed the following phrases :

« Amd-ara'pupe, on another occasion, = amdy other, -^ara, time, +P^P6 == ope, on or at.

« Amd-mdme, in another place, = amo, 4- mdme, where.

Amdrupy, to the contrary, = amd, 4- rupy, to, by, (prep.)

« Amo-rame , sometimes, = amo, + rame, when, other when.

< Amo-iby-sui, from another land, =amo, + iby, land, + swi, from.

— YabSy each. From this are derived or formed the following :

« Yabe-yabe, each one, = yepe-yepe, one by one;

« Amd-yabe, so much or so many.

— Mad, aught, something. From this are formed :

« Intimad, naught, nothing, = inti, not, -f- mady thing ;

— 79 —

« Yepemad, some-body, = yepe, one,-{-mad thing :

— Mira-y, few, a few; =mira, people, + y = miTi, small, little. [33]

Fabe or opai, all, all together.

These indefinite pronouns are, as a rule, in- variable.

CHAPTER YI

VERBS

SI. — According to their meaning, the verbs of the Brasilian language may be classified, as transitive and intransitive.

By the use of some regular particles (prep . or suffix) the transitive may become intransitive, as well as, the intransitive may pass into trans- itive.

Transitive verbs are also used reflexively and reciprocally, by means of certain particles, joined to them .

There are found, yet, a few verbs, which may

— 8o —

be rightly considered, as causative, in view of their grammatical functions in the sentence.

— All these classes of verbs are invariable words, like the other parts of speech, that is to say: — that their radical does not undergo any change of form to express the various relations oi voice, mood, tense, number and person of conjugation.

^^. — Voice, (a) We think, we may affirm, that in this language there are wanting, not only the passive verb, but also the passive voice itself. First, the Brasilian language does not possess the especial verb, — so-called substan- tive, — as the Latin esse, to be. Sentences, such as ; Paul is good, are expressed in Brasilian by the simple words, — Paul, hatu, that is, Paul good, or Paul has goodness. [104]

In order, then, to denote something, like the passive voice, it is, as a rule, sufficient to place certain words, which have themselves the mean- ing of passive participles, after the substantive or pronoun serving, as the subject ; ex :

— « Paul was killed, = Paul iukdudr a, ov Paul iukd-pyra ; = iukd, to k'lW, -{-udra or pyra, suffix denoting the object of the action, — as killed .

*— « Thou art baptised ; = ine remoserok-~

— 8i —

udra ; = re, personal prefix of the second person sing., H- moserdka, to baptise, +waVa, suffix, as the before said. [44=].

^3. — (e) Reflexive or reciprocal verbs are forme 1 from the transitive by particles plac- ed, as infixes, between the personal prefix and the verb . The most used of those particles are ye, yo (sometimes, nlie or nho) equivalent to the Latin and Portuguese pronoun — se (ace.) ; ex :

< Pe-iuM, you kill, — pe-yo-iukd, you kill yourselves, one another ;

« Moapdray to crook, — ye-moapdra, to bend oneself.

When the subject is a pronoun of the first or of the second person, it is usual to express the reflexive form by the mere repetition of the those pronouns, as in the Romance-tongues; ex :

« Thou killest thyself, = re ine iukd, or rS yC'iukd ; lit. — thou thee killest.

« We kill ourselves, ^= ore-oro ye-iukd ; — lit. — we us kill, etc.

^4L* — (i) Transitive verbs 0,3,11, as a general rule, be formed from the intransitive by the use of the prefix mo, which sometimes works, as a causative, and sometimes has the particular function of converting nouns and adjectives of quality into regular verbs ; ex :

— 82 —

(1) « A-in, (or xa-in) I lay down, — a-md-in, I place or I cause to sit down ;

« Xa-ropare, I lose myself,— .ra mo-ropare, I make somebody go astray ;

« Xa-puam, I rise or arise,— xa-'mo-puam, I cause something or somebody to arise ;

« Sem, to go out, — m6-sem,io make go out ;

« Tiy, to tremble, — md-tiih to make trem- ble ;

(2) « Abaete, renowned, — mo-abaete, to re- nown, or to make renowned ;

« Abyk, needle, — mo^abykik, to sew ;

« Apdra, crooked, — mo-apdray to crook or to make crooked ;

« Ayba, evil, — mo-ayb, to offend, to injure ;

« Peb, flat, — mo'peb, to flatten.

« Poxi, bad, evil, — mo^moxi {m == p) , to viciate, to adulterate .

[ This prefix md, we suppose to be a con- tracted form of the verb mon^<^, which means, exactly, to do or to make. ]

From the foregoing illustrations we may judge, how frequent must be the employment of this prefix or root mo, which, indeed, is found in most Brazilian verbs *

-- 83 —

PRONOMINAL SUBJECTS AND PERSONAL PREFIXES

^l%» — We call « personal prefixes » certain particles, which are invariably affixed to verbs with the same signification, as the personal suffixes of the Latin verbs .

In tlie following table we make a complete enumeration of such personal pre fixes, indicating their corresponding signification in Latin :

Pers. pron.	Pers. pnf.	Meaning.
Ixe or xe	a	= I or me.
Inde, ine or ne re	:=Thou, thee.
Ae	0	=: He, she, it, or him, her .
lande or iane	C) ict	= TFe, us.
Penhe or pee	p3	^ You, ye,
Aetd or aitd	0	= They, them.
LATI>.		ENGLISH
Pers suffixes.	Cf:-	Meaning
0	amo	= I love .
S	arnas	= Thou lovest .
t	amat	= He loves.
mus	amamus	= We love.
Us	amatis	= You love .
nt	amant	= They love .

— 84 —

[ (*) It must be repeated, that in Brazilian languages, as in most American tongues, there are two forms for the pronoun of the first person plural, the one inclusivef the other exclusive .

« The inclusive form is that presented above — iande or iane (= ia, I 4- ne, thou, == wej, the exclusive is — ore or oro, (we, without or minus you) ; ex : we (exclusive of you) kill, oro ia-iukd . ]

— As we see, the personal prefixes represent the pronominal subject of the verb ; but, while they can be used alone without the personal pro- nouns, these, on the contrary, can never appear, without them. We could say, for instance : amamus,^= ia-saisu, we love, — wherein is not expressed the personal pronoun iande or ian4 = we ; but we cannot say : — iande or iane saisu, without the personal prefix — ia .

— The leading rule, in relation to pronom- inal subjects, is this : — in the first person sing, it is always expressed, and takes the con- tracted form — xa, = xe -^ a. In the second and the third persons sing, they are regularly omitted, being in this case substituted by the afore- said personal prefix-^ e^: amas, = re' saisu; amat = o-saisu, thou lovest, he loves.

— 85 —

In the plural, the pronominal subjects need not be, particularly, expressed .

MOOD

^6. — The most original form, in which the verb appears in the Brasilian speech, is one affirming the action or existence of an indefi- nite subject ; that is to say, it has not the Infini- tive mood, properly so-called, and always expresses the action of a subject, — * 'determinate or indeterminate". The word, or rather the particle, which comes joined to the verb, as its indefinite subject, is the prefix — o, and has a meaning, just like that of the German man, or the French — on in these phrases, — man spricht, on parle = o-nhee, to speak, that is, one speaks.

Now it must be remembered, that this con- crete mode of speech is, doubtless, more natural to savage people, who deal, very seldom, with abstract ideas .

In the grammars and vocabularies of their language, it is certain, that we find the vetbs used, as in the Infinitive mood ; but, when we pay better attention to the practical applications,

— 86 —

it results, that the savages do not know the use of such a mood.

[ An example of this kind is found in Arabic, wherein the third person sing, of the Perfect is the simplest form of the verb; and this is also liable to change into transitive or in- transitive, active or reflexive, by means of some particles, used as prefixes, as in Bra- silian. ] (*)

Nevertheless, as it facilitates the understand- ing of the examples, which illustrate the matter, we continue, likewise, to consider that indefinite form of Brasilian verbs, as being their Infinitive mood ; ex : — Saisu or o-saisu, to lo^e ; — iukd or o-iukd, to kill, etc.

From this simple form, which is always in- variable, are formed — moods, tenses and par- ticiples, or verbal adjectives, by the regular use of some special particles, which occur, either isolated or grouped together .

TENSES

^T. — The simple tenses are : — - Present, Past (= the Latin Perfect) and Future.

(*) William Wright, Arabic Gram. (Dublin, J859.)

8?

Present tense

TliG Present is formed by adding the pronom- inal subjects, or the personal prefixes alone, to verbs ; ex :

BI\A3. UNGLISn

Xa (=oce-\-a) mehen . I give.

Re-mehen Thou givest.

Ae o-mehen He, she or it gives .

lane ia-mehen We (I and thou) give.

Ore ia-mehen We (minus you) give.

PenM pe-mehen You give.

Aitcl o-mehen They give.

The «Imperfect Present» can be also formed by placing the verb tko, to be [loi] with its pers. prefixes, after the other verb, to which it serves, as an auxiliary ; thus:

BRAS. ENGLISH

Xa mehen-xa iko. ... I am giving, = Igive-j-

I am. Re-mehen'refrjikd .. Thou art giving, =thou

givest+thou art. Ae o-mehen^o-ikd. . . He is giving, = he

gives+he is. lane ia-mehen^iaikd . We are giving, = we

give+we are. Pc-mehen-pnkd You are giving, =you

give+you are. Aita o-mehen-o-ikd.. They are giving, =they

give+they are.

— 88 —

— Another way of expressing the same thought is to add the suffix ara (or dae = ae) to the verbal root and to place it after the substantive or pronoun, serving, as the subject; ex:

« Mehen-dra who gives at the present

time ; « Paul mehen-dra^ .... Paul gives or is giving

now [no. 30]

Past or perfect tense

^S. — If we had to translate the Latin term -amavimus, we loved, into Brazilian, it would be necessary to employ the following words, — lane ia-saisu-an, or at least, — ia-saisu-an.

The postpositive an properly means the past time. Although it is added to verbs, as a suffix, it still keeps its independent form and import, as may be seen in the following instances :

tATIN BRAS. BN6LI8H

Amavi. . . . Xa-saisio-an I loved.

Amavisti . . Inde re-saisur^ctfi . Thou lovedst.

Amavit .... Ae o~saisu-an ... He loved ,

Amavimus lane ia-saisio-an . We loved .

Amavistis. Penhl^ pe-saisKnun You loved.

Amaverunt Aitd o^saisvran. . They loved.

- 89

Future

^O. — Now, let us suppose, that we wish to express an action in a coming time, as the ex- pression, — amabimus, we will love, which is translated into Brasilian = lane ia-saisu-hurl.

The above postpositive kuri is used, and it means, when joined to the verb, that the action will take place in a coming time, and therefore it is the sign of the Future of verbs ; ex :

LATIN BIIAS. ENGLISH

Amabo .... Xa saisu-kuri I will love

Amabis . . . Ine re-saisu-kuri . . . Thou wilt love

Amabit. . . Ae o-saisu-kuri He will flove

Amabimus lane ia-saisu-kuri , . We shall love Amabitis.. Penhe-pe-saisu-kuri You will love Araabunt.. Aitd o-saisurkuri, . They shall love

THE NEGATION AND INTERROGATION

OO. — (1) The negative form of verbs is rendered by placing the particle inti (=niiio) or intimad ( = inti, + mad, thing, = nothing ) before the subject of the sentence ; ex:

— go —

« I wish, xa potare; I do not ^yish, inti, or inti-mad xa potare; word for word : = not or nothing I ivish .

— (2) The interrogative form of verbs is ren- dered by the use of one of these particles — ^a, tahci or sera, which may be placed, either before or after the verb ; ex :

« Have you some bread? = pe-relio s,mt.k

meape ? « Who is ihere'^ = aud tahA o-ikd ape ? [ See no. o^, 2 >,]

ANOMALOUS VERBS

01. — We call « anomalous », certain Bra- zilian verbs, that undergo alteration in the root, which is contrary to the general system of their conjugation.

In our state of knowledge on the matter, this kind of verbs is of rare occurrence ; and to speak the truth, the only ones, the forms of which are used irregularly, are the following:

(i) — The verb so, to go, which in the Impe-

— 9^ —

r alive mood presents the anomalous forms: — iko-en, go thou ; — pe-iko-en pec, go you.

(ii) — The verb neliel (in some grammars we find —a^), to say, or rather, just equivalent to the Latin — • aio, is, I say yes, which changes the radical in the Perfect and Future ; ex:

Perfect

BRAS. ENGL.

Xa in-an I said .

Re-in-an Thou saidst.

Ae-o-in-an He said.

Yane ia-in-an We said.

Pec pe-in-an. . : You said.

Aitd 0 -in-an They said.

Future

Xa in-kuri I will say .

Re-in-kuri Thou wilt say .

Ae o-in-kuri He shall say.

Yane ia-in-kuri We will say.

Penhc pe-in-kuri You will say.

Aeta o-in-kuri They will say.

[In these two tenses the verb, properly so-coll- ed, is the monosyllable — in, and this is the form use 1 by the liing tribes of North -Brasil] .

— 92 —

O^. — Now it is to be noted: — that in the conjugation of Brasilian verbs the following ele- ments concur regularly : — (1) the personal pronoun, as the subject ; — (2) the prefixes, cor- responding to the personal suffixes of the Indo- European-tongues; — (3) the verb, or rather, the verbal or attributive root ; (4) the postpositive particles an and kuri, when the action is ex- pressed in the Past or in the Future.

Ovl. — Besides the three principal tenses — Present, \Past and Future, the savages yet use other secondary ones, which correspond to the various and distinct relations of time in Latin verbs. They do so, by means of some other speci- al suffixes, (conjunctions and adverbs), which express condition, mode, time, etc ; ex:

LATIN BRAS. KNatlSH

Amabam. Xa saisu-yepe-i =Iwas loving

(once). Amavero . Xa saisu-mairame =When 1 will

love . Am em . Xa saisu-kuure = I may love

(now). Amarem . i Xa saiS'C^-^ame == I might love.

-93 -

[ The various particles, or modifying elements, used to expi*ess the verbal relations, may differ in forms from those above mentioned ; but, as a rule, all of them are identical in their functions and usual applications ].

O'^. — It is a notable idiom of the Brasilian language the use of the auxiliary verb potare, (to wish) which does not take any personal prefix, and is always placed after the principal verb in the sentence ; ex : I wish to go, =xa so potare; word for word : — I to go wish.

The same rule is applied to caicsative verbs, or rather, to some verbs in causative phrases, like these : — I bid make, = xa mdnhd kdri; — literally: = I make bid ; — you can go, or you know how to go, = pe-sd kudu; — word for word : — you go can or you to go know . [loe]

[ The verb hudu means, at the same time, to Know hoio and to he able or can ; in Brasilian the ideas — knowledge and power are iden- tical ones ].

Except this especial use of the verbs potare and of the causatives, the general rule for two or more verbs appearing in the sentence is, that the personal prefixes must be repeated ; that is to

— 94 —

say, — the verbs must be used, as if they were quite independent of one another ; ex :—

« I am speaking, = xa nehe2 xa iko ; i. e: — / speak I am ; [ s'?' ] .

« I have nothing to do, '■=intimad xa rekd xa monhd ardma ; — literally: = nothing I have I make to .

[ For better illustration on this point, see the chapter '' Rules and Remarks ".]

FORMATION OF VERBS

OI>. — As a general rule, all predicative roots may be converted into verbs, — by affixing to them the personal prefix, by itself, or with ■ — the pronoun, as subject ; — ex : sem, the act of going out or appearing, — xa-sem, — -I go out ; — her, sleep, — o-ker, to sleep, that is, = he sleeps ; — tog, the act of covering, — re-tog, — thou coverest, etc.

Besides this, there are certain formative ele- ments, which occur, very frequently, in the for- mation or derivation of a great many verbs .

- 9^ ~

The formative elements, most ordinarily used, are the two following : —

OO. — Mo, particle, (prefix) which works, either as a causative verb, or converts any pre- dicative roots into transitive verbs.

It may, likewise, be joined to intransitive verbs to transform them into transitive ones. [84]

Examples :

Aku, warm ; — mo-aku, to warm or to make hot.

Asuk, the act of taking a bath ; — mo^asuk, to bathe somebody.

Asy, pain, or ache ; — mo-asp, to ache or to be in pain.

Ayba, bad ; — mo-ayba, to ruin, to waste, to demolish, etc.

Pe, road, way, track etc ; — mo-pe, to level the path or the way.

Peku, long ; — mo-peku, to lengthen .

Pordnga, fine or beautiful ; — mo-poranga, to trim or to attire.

Sdif sour ; — mo-sdi, to make sour, to em- bitter.

Seem, sweet; — mo-seem, to sweeten.

_96-

Sardi/y jest ; — mo^saray, to jest.

Tapy, deep ; — mo-tapy, to sink.

Yaseon, to weep or to mourn ; — mo-yaseon, to make weep .

Ye-mombeu, to confess oneself ; — mo-ye-mom- beUy to avow .

Ye-nonQf to lie down ; — mo-ye-nong, to put down.

Yo-yabe, to pair, or to make oneself equal !o ; — mo-yo-yabe, — to equal, to adjust, to compare.

Yokdh, to lean upon ; — mo-yo-kok, to uphold.

Ye'-mendra, to marry ; — mo-ye^mendraf to make marry .

OT. — Ye or yo (also nhe or nhd)y particle- prefixes, denoting that the predicative root ex- presses a reflexive, intransitive or reciprocal ftction. — [83]

Examples :

Kapik. to comb; — ye-kapik^ to comb oneself.

Komeeng, to indicate ; — ye-komeeng, to appear, to expose oneself.

Ko4ma, dawn or morning ; — ye-hoima, to dawn or to grow day.

Moasuk, to bathe somebody ; — ye-moasuh, to take a bath.

— 97 —

Mo-ayba, to ruin something;— ye-mo-apba, to ruin oneself.

Mosaem, to divulge ; — ye-mosaem, to be divulged.

Meeng, to give or to deliver ; — ye-meeng, to deliver or to render oneself up.

Mo-tykaUy to dry or to wipe; — ye-mo-tykdny to dry oneself.

Participles

The rules, by which in Brasilian the several participles are, in general, formed, will be found in the chapter on nouns. [38 to 44=]

CHAPTER VII

POSTPOSITIONS

OS. — The usual relations, expressed by prepositions, as we see in the modern European languages, are denoted in Brasilian languages by means of postpositions. — They are various in form and number, and correspond, in their

-98-

applications and meaning, to prepositions, in general.

The principal postpositions of the Brasilian language are :

Sui — denotes separation or removal from one place to another, or derivation and motion from the interior of an object ; it is equivalent to the Latin prepositions — a or ab and e or ex ; ex : I came from the city ,=wa iur-an mairy sui \ lit ; — I came city from .

Ope, — in, (sometimes =: upon and within) denotes position of an object ; it corresponds to the Latin prep . in with ablative ; ex : In the Church, = Tupan (r)oka ope ; lit : — God*s house in.

Supe — denotes relation to an object, that is, limitation or destination, «= to or for, as in the phrases — to me or for you» — ; it expresses a re- lation equivalent to the Latin dative ; ex : Give this hat to my friend, = re-mehen ine koahd xapeua kamarara supe; lit: give thou this hat friend to ; — love to God, = saisu Tupan supe; lit : =love God to .

Ardma — denotes also the relation to an object, but is especially employed, when we desire to express a « destination or purpose », as will be better understood from the following

n ~ 99 -

Latin example : — Exitio est mare nautiSy (the sea is for a destruction io sailors ), = para porarasdba igatinyha ardma ; — word for word: the sea, a torment pilots to ; — I want her for ray wife, = oca potare ae se ocemerikd ardma; lit: I want her my wife for.

Pope — denotes interior position, = within; ex: Within thy house, := re (rjokapope ; lit: — thy house within.

Yma signifies without, as the Latin sine ; ex: Woman without her husband, =^wn/z a i mena-yma; word for word: = woman her hus- band without.

Iromo — denotes company, as the Lsiiin cum, with ; ex: — With my brother, = se mu iromo; lit := my brother with.

[ From this postposition iromo is derived iromo-dra, fellow, companion. ]

Kete or kety ■— denotes motion to a place, as the Latin ad, to ; ex : I go to thy house, = xa-sb re (r)dka kete ; lit: = I go thy house to.

[ In phrases such as : — eo ad te, adiit 7'egem, etc. the postposition, mostly used, is piri = to ; ex : Paulus adiit fratrem, = Paulu O'Sb-an i mu piri; lit : ^= Paul went his broth- er to ] .

Adrpe or dri^e — are used with the signifi-

— 100 —

cation of « vipon »; ex : Upon the table,= mura- peua aripe ; lit: = table upon.

Sese or resS — denotes a cause or reason, « on account of, for the sake of » ; ex : For the sake of God,= Tupan rese ; — on account of bad weather, = dra ayba sese ; lit: = weather bad because of.

Eupy — denotes cause, instrument, and in a limited sense, = « through either in space or in time > ; a it corresponds to the Latin per ; ex : He goes through the street, = ae-o-sd okdra rupy ; — in jest,= mosardya rupy ; lit: he goes street through ; — jest in .

Uerpe or uyrpe — are used with the signifi- cation of the Latin prep . 52^, under ; ex : Under the table, = murapeua uerpe ; lit : =: table under.

Rendnd or tenonde (r = t, n = d),= coram or ante^ before ; ex : Before me, = ooe renonde; lit : = me before .

Eekuidra,= « instead of » ; ex : Thou art playing, instead of working, = re-porauke re- kuidra, re-yo-mosdrai re-iko, — word for word: =thou working instead of, thou playing thou art.

[We find yet other simple or compound-words used as postpositions; but we think, they may be con- sidered with greater reason, as pure adverbs.]

— lOI —

CHAPTER VIII

ADVERBS

OO . — According to their signification, ad- verbs may be divided into the following classes : — (1) adverbs of place; (2) adverbs of negation, affirmation and interrogation; (3) adverbs of time, "determinate or indeterminate"; (4) ad- verbs of manner, degree of quality, etc.

(1)

ADVERBS OF PLACE

Mami '* ubi, where " generally used, as in- terrogative ; ex : Where is your land, = mamk- tad ne{*) retdma ?

« This mame is a derivative from mad, thing, in its most absolute meaning, — as the Latin res = an object, place, occasion, action, etc. + mi = pe, in ; therefore, mame = maape, in a thing or place. » The following adverbs will give further illustration : —

Madsui {mad + sui, postp.= from), ^^unde,

(*) Retama or tetama means properly native country.

— 102 —

whence"; ex : Whence do you come, = mad-sui tad re-iur ?

Mad'keiy {maa •+- kety, postp. = to), " quo, whither" ; ex: "Whither are you going, = mad- kef y penli2 pe-so ?

Mad-rupy ( = mad + rupy, postposition,= through), ''qua, in what way" ; ex : In what way does flow the river, = mad-rupy parand td o-nhdna ?

Ike, and also ko, ''hie, here (by the speak- er)" ; ex : Here is our land, = ike yane re- ^dma.

« From ike are derived :

« Kisiy,= ike-{- sui, "hinc, from hence (from the speaker) ";

« Ki'kite,= ike -{-kety, "hue, hither, (to the speaker)".

Adpe, " istic, there, (by the person adressed)" ; ex : He was there, = o-ikd-an aape.

Mime, "ibi, there" ; ex : See my dog there, = mime pe-mahd se iau-ara,

« From mime are derived :

« Mi'Xihy, = mime -h sui, " istinc, from thence, (from the person addressed)" ;

« Mi-kiti, = mime + kite, "eo, thither".

Arpe, * 'above, upwards".

?7erpe, * 'below, down".

— io3 —

[ These two adverbs are also used, as postpo- ir.tions, of which we treated before. ]

Okdr-pe, '*foris or foras, out, without," ( = okara, street,+ p^, in); ex : 1 was out, oftaV- pe cca iko-an.

Sakakoera, ''pone or retro^ behind"; ex : It is behind, = sakakoera o-ikd.

Ape-katu, 'Honge, far"; ex : Far from the city ,= ape^katu taud sui ; lit: far city from.

Poiterpe or pyterpey ** between, amidst ".

(2)

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION, NEGATION, ETC.

(a)

Affirmative or concessive particles

Hehe, "etiam, yes". Empd, **quippe, of course". Hehe-empOy **in this way perhaps". Katu-ente, "so so, or verily". Ae'hatu, ''rec^e, quite right".

— I04 — (e)

Negative particles

Nitio, intiOf inti,ti or ni, ^^non, no, not, nor".

« All these forms are found, either in the nega- tion of verbs, or as prefixes of other words ; ex : Nitio^abdy nobody; nitio-mame, no where; — inti-mady nothing ; — inti-ape-kaiu, not far ; — inti or ti xa-p6tare» I will not-, — ni-amo- ara, never ;(= m, nor+ awd, other -{-ara, time.)

Ymay ^^minus, without. [ See the postpo- sitions.]

(I)

Interrogative particles

One of these particles, sera, tahay ta orpd must always occur in the interrogatives phra- ses, which is to be placed after the verb in case this be the modified word; ex: Tne re-rekd serd meape ? = have you some bread ?

In case, another be the modified word, the par- ticle must be placed after that one and before the verb ; ex : Mad meape tahd re-reko ? = what bread have you ?

— io5 —

These particles may also be joined to a simple noun, as for ex : mad^ thing ; and mad <a/ia?= what?

(3)

ADVERBS OP TIME

Mair-rame, " quum or quando , when. "

Ara-poku-sduaj " semper, always ". — <Ara time,-\-poku^sauay length ; = length of time.»

Inii-an-kuri, ** never ". « Inti, not,-|-aw, particle denoting the Past, + kuri^ another particle denoting the Future ;=:neither in the Past nor in the Future . »

Ni-am6-ara, ** never ". — « Ni, nor, + amd, other,+ara, time ;= in no other time. »

Aram4 or rame, *' tunc, then, " at that time. <Rame is also the sign of the Imperfect, as in the Latin verb, amabam, facer em, I was loving, I was making ; = xa saisu rame, xa monhd fame . »

Kuur, — ** nunc, now, on this occasion.'* « It is also used, as the sign of the the Present Subjunctive, as, for instance: — the Latin verb amem,ihait I love, =^a saisu kuur, )>

— io6 —

Amd-ara, — *' in the coming time ". « Amdy other, -{-ara, time.»

Ana, *' now, just now *' ; — and its derivative — inti-ana, not yet.

Banhe, or rat, ** still, till the present".

Oiy, — ** hodie, to day".

0iype4, — **once."

Kuise, — '* hen, yesterday " ; — and its de- rivative— amo-kuise, before yesterday, that is, another yesterday.

KwHf **after, presently". « It is the sign of the Future ; — and its derivative — kuri^mirif soon after, = a little after. »

An, — ** already". « It is the sign of the Past.»

Rete-an, *' too late, " — « Rete, much or too,4-a^.»

Riri or rire, ' 'po5f , pos^ea, after, afterwards. "

« Rire is also used, as a postposition, »

(4)

ADVERBS OP MANNfR, DEGREE, QUALITY, ETC.

laue, — ** ita, so."

Tenhe, ** item, itidem, likewise, " in the same manner.

— loy —

KatKrente, — " so so . "

Ete [or reUy " much, very much.

Pau or pane, " so much, or so many. "

Myure,^^SiS, how much or how many".

Py7^e, ** magis, more. "

Amo-yrey a little more; « amo,-{-pyre,= other more . »

Xingay — ^^ minus, less, or hardly".

Anhu, nhon ornhonte, " alone, only, solely."

May, " as, so. "

Teipd, ** at last. "

— There are yet many other words, used as adverbs, which we have not mentioned.

The place of the adverb in the sentence may be before or after the verb ; but always after the adjective or another adverb ; ex: 1 goto-day,= oca-sd oipy or oiy xa-so ; — very good, = katu- rete ; much more, = pyr-ete ; etc .

CHAPTER IX

CONJUNCTIONS

lOO. — The particles, which may be classed, as conjunctions, are the following : Y, — ''and" 0, — '*or"

— io8 —

Aa-rese (aa = mad, 4- rese), *' ideo, quanta obrem,'' for that reason, because of, etc.

A-suy, **ergo, therefore," — (ae,-|-5ui,=from that).

Ni, **nor ". [n. ei]

Arery, " autem, however or but."

Arame, " enim, etenim for, for indeed. "

Ydur, ''neither, nor. "

May, — 'Square, why, on account of ** ?

CHAPTER X

INTERJECTIONS

lOl. — The particles or words used, as» in- terjections, are numerous ; among others we will mention the following : —

(^) Of astonishment : — ah!, . , .

(^) Of inquiring : — an ?. .= what ?

(^) Of pain \ un un I . ,. .

(*) Of satisfaction and of praise : ape / . . . .

(^) Of encouragement : ere! , . . .

C) Of calling : hdhd ! , , , ,

C) Of reprobation : athie !

(®) Of profound disgust : aradn != oh tem- pera ! !

— 109 —

(') Of compassion : tute ! aud-teite !

n Of doubt '.id!....

(^^) Of approbation : heem !

(*^) Of interrogation : serd ?

(^^) Of sending away : atimbora ! = be off !

CHAPTER XI

MISCELLANEOUS RULES AND REMARKS

lO!^. — Nouns of the Brasilian language, as was noted before, have no inflections to mark **gender, number and case" ; and therefore can appear in a sentence, as the subject or the object of verbs, without change of forms.

Syntax of tlie subject

(i) As a general rule, the subject ** noun or pronoun " is placed before the verb . The only real exception to it, we know, is the peculiar use of the relative pronoun — udd — , that occurs invariably after the verb of the dependent sen- tence ; ex : hast thou the arrow which my brother sent me'^=re-rek6 serd auoa se mu

— I 10 —

mundu uad ixe ardma ? — « word for word:=* thou hast the arrow my brother sent which me to ? » [n. vs]

(ii) When the subject is of the third person and the object of the verb is a pronoun of the first or second person, and the verb is of the Imperative or Subjunctive moody the subject is regularly placed after the verb J 6X: that f John kill thee,== t-ine iukd John\[tine = ine, thou or thee, by Prothesis] .

(hi) When it is necessary to use greater ener- gy in the assertion, or in the expression of feeling, they repeat the pronoun-subject and the personal prefix ; ex: Ixe xa-rekd, I, myself, have ;

— ine re-rekdf thou, thyself, hast, etc.

(iv) In the sentences, in which verbal-phra- ses occur, such as : — Lat . eo petitum (ad petendum),= Port. voupedir, I am going to ask ;

— Lat. venio awdJ^Y^«m(ad audiendum),= Port. venho ouvir^ I come to hear ; — the repetition of the pronoun, as the subject joined to each verb, is indispensable ; ex: xa-so xa sendi se mira,=^l go to call my people ; — literally: I go +1 call my people .

(v) The same rule applies to the auxiliary verb

— ikd, to be, in the formation of the Imperfect Present i as was said before [svj/ex: I am

— Ill —

making,=^a monhd xaiko ;\i. e : I make-l-I am ; — she is working, =:ae o-parduke o-ikd; — literally: she works+she is, etc.

The syntax of tlie object

103. — In respect to the object, we find the following rules :

(i) When it is a pronoun of the first or second person, it must be placed between the subject and the verb; ex: I kill yo\i,=ooapee iukd; — thou killest me,= re ixe iukd, etc.

(ii) But when the object is a substantive, or pronoun of the third person, the most regular use in the speech of the living tribes is to place it after the verb; although it seems, that the general rule in past times, was to place the verb always after its object; ex: — thou hast the knife,= re kise rekd, (old order) or re-rekd kise (new order); — the serpent bites him, = bdia o-sou ae, (new order) — or boia ae o-sou, (old order).

Sytatax of the vert)

lO^. — In the Brasilian speech, as in many other savage languages, there is not the so- called> « auxiliary verb », as the Latin esse.

— 112 —

to be, [sa] i, e:— a verb, which stands, as a mere connective of assertion between a si^ject and some word discribing this subject, and so has no meaning of its own, except that of indicating assertion, cov/pling together two words in the relation of subject and predicate. — In this language the simple union of a subject to a predicate supplies the corresponding value of such a verb; ex: xe katu, means — I am good, I have goodness, or more strictly, my goodness ; — re pordnga, means — thou art beautiful, thou hast beauty, or simply, — thy beauty .

For better illustration we present below other examples of the kind :

BRAS. ENGL.

Saku sera ind? Are you warm ? lit : warm

[90,2] you ?

Ixe saku I am warm ; i, e: I warm .

Ixe intimad saku. I am not warm ; lit :

» » » I nothing warm.

Ine ruy serd ? Are you cold ? lit :

» » » you cold?

Ixeinti-madseruy I am not cold ? i. e:

» » I nothing+I cold

Re sekuie serd ?... Art thou fearful ? lit :

» » » thou fearful?

Hehe ixe xa sekuie Yes, I am fearful ?i.e;

, yes, I myself, fearful.

— ii3 —

» The verb iko which lias been considered by some writers, as an equivalent to the » au- xiliary Yerh to be, — meaning mere assertion, is not so ; it signifies, on the contrary, a parti* cular condition or situation of the sid?ject, that is ; it expresses a concrete mode of being and the actual relation of the subject vvith i\\Q predicate in a definite way.

» In English there is want of this special verb ; because the verb — to stand, °-^v\\id\ seems like it, keeps, in general, the same particular meaning of the Latin stare, to be erect.

» But in the Romance languages this \evhstare has not kept such a limited signification, and, in general, means the existence of a subject in a certain state or condition at a certain time. From the following examples will be better understood what is its proper use and import ; ex :

» It. — sto bene, = Sp. — stoy bien,= Port. — estou bom, = » original Latin words »—sto bene^ which means precisely I stand loell ; whilst the actual meaning of this sentence in the above Romance languages is : — I am icell, or rather, I feel icell noio.

» The meaning of the Brasilian verb iko is entirely identical with the aforesaid stare of the Romance languages ; and, therefore, if

— 114 —

we had to express the foregoing sentences, — we katu, re poranga, combined with such ^ verb, saying, for instance, — xd-iko katu, re-iko poranga, their signification, now, would be, precisely, this : — I am icell or I feel well, at this moment, and thou lookest pretty, at this moment, — r which would be different from their previous meaning .

« In short, the verb ikd always implies the idea of a certain state at the time spoken of. »

lO^ . — Another fact, which we consider, as deserving especial remark, is the use of adjectives agreeing with verbs in the same way, as if these were true substantives ; ex : —pah, to awake, ■ — xe pdk, my waking ; — her, to sleep, — reher* thy sleeping ; — 50, to go, — i-x6, = i-s6, his going, etc.

In such a usage we discover manifest relics of the preceding period of the language, when words had yet no grammatical distinction among them, that is ; when all words were the original expressions of feelings and ideas, scarcely distinguished, sls predicative and demonstrative roots .

ii:? -^

The peculiar construction of some verbs

106. — Avery notable idiom of the Brasi- Man language is the peculiar construction of certain verbs, which appear governing another; verb, as their object. Thus, for instance :—

« Lat. — volo videre, I wish to see, =:Br, — xa mcihepdtdre; literally, = I to. se^ wi^h; -^

« Lat. — jubetis ilium occidi, you order him to be killed, = Br .^ pe-iukd hare ae, ovpd aa pe-iukd kdre; lit. == you to hill order him, or you him to hill you order.

« Lat . — scim,us Tupy loqui, we can speak Tupy, = Br. — iane ia-nehee kudu Tupy ; lit : ive speah can Tupy, &, &.

The verbs, which usually require this especi. al construction of the sentence, are : potd7^e,, to wish or will ; hudu, to know or can ; — maasy, to need or to feel uneasy about ; hdre, to ms^ke or to bid make, [04]

— The sentences formed with these verbs also constitute an exception to the general rule of pronouns, as subjects, which we have treated of already in the foregoing. [ 10^2]

II

6 -

To need and (to) will

loy.— We cannot fail to remark the usual distinction, made by our savage people, between the two ideas, — expressed by the verbs (to) will and to need. They express them by the words « pot are, and masij » — The latter is derived from the root — asy, to feel pain or grief; of: — 'md-asy, to be sick or to feel hurt; — ye-moasy, to be stimulated or aggravated ; — ma-asy, to grow sick ; etc .

Now, let us see the distinction : potare is used, when they mean to express a desire or want, the satisfaction of which depends on human power, as, for instance : I wish to go, = xa so pota7^e, or I desire to eat fish, = xa U'potdre pird, & &. But when, instead of a simple desire, depending on their free-will or choice, they speak of a natural necessity, as of drinking, eating, sleeping, etc. , they never use the verb — potdre, — but the verb masi/ only, which exprejjses a necessity imposed on man.

Indeed, we can rightly say : — we wish to eat fish, or to eat bread, & ; but we must say, — we need eating, as it is a thing indispensable to life.

— 117 —

And it is for this reason, that sentences, such as, — I need eating, and drinking, are usually expressed in Brasilian by the verb masy ; namelj^ : oca-iu masy ; — lit : -— I eating or drinking need.

« A.S is seen from the preceding example, this verb or verbal root masy is liable to the same grammatical construction of the verbs — potare, kudu, etc. [ See iog ] . »

Est meum, est tuum, etc.

lO^ . — As it is natural to their intellectual conditions, savage people, in the most ordinary way of speaking, use only concrete names. It is clear, that abstract words denote a certain degree of mental culture, to which, in general, they cannot attain by their simple way of living restricted to eating, drinking, hunting and the like.

Hence results, that phrases like these: Lat. — est meum, = Fr . — c'est a moi, — it is mine ; and again: Lat. — est tuum, =Port . — e teu, it is thine; — can only be expressed in Br. lang. by

— ii8 —

the possessive agreeing with a noun, clearly expressed, namely: se mad, ne mad, = my thing, thy thing.

« The copula est (=is) is omitted, because such a verb does not exist in Brasilian». [io4 ]

DIVISION OP TIME

lOO. — Brasilian savage tribes did not divide time into months and weeks ; at the most, they in- dicated the space between the one moon and the other, by the word — yacy, which means, pro- perly, the moon,

a) But, afterwards, through being catechised, or through dealing with white people, they have come to designate the days of the week with special names, as follows :

BNatlSH BRAS.

Sunday (^) Motou or metuu,

Monday (^) Morauke-pe .

Tuesday {^) Morauke-mokoT .

Wednesday /*) Morauke-mosapur .

Thursday (^) Supapau,

Friday (^) lukuaku,

Saturday C) Sauru,

— 119 —

(^) Mot6u,=m8 (formative element of verbs)* [ 96 ]■+• tuu=potuu, rest, repose ;=:the resting- day.

(2) Morauliepey=morauke, to work,+ pe = yepe, one ; =the first working day »

(^) Morauke-mokoTj = morauke, -+■ mokoe, two ;=the second working day .

(*) Morauke-mosapur , = morauke , 4- mo- sapur, three ;=the third working-day .

(^) SupapdUf su=s66 , meat, -^^ papdu = opdUf to be finished ;=the day in which the eating of meat is finished,

(^) Iukuaku,=ukuakUy to fast, i, e: — m, to eat or the eating, + kuakUy to put a stop to;=a day, in which eating is suppressed .

Q SaurUf = sabaru, is a corruption of the Portuguese word sdbbado, Saturday.

Days and niglits

b) The savages divide day and night into sev- eral portions of time, after the position of the sun in the day-time, after the course or the rising and setting of the moon or the stars, at night.

— 120 —

We give, in the examples below, a complete idea of this usage :

Space of time Names

From the sun-rise to 9

o'clock Koema (morning) .

From 9 o'clock to noon. Koarasy-uatdy ( sun

high).

— '■ Noon Saie, or ianddra (ian-

dara,= iande,oviV, -\-dra, time,= our time . )

From noon to 5 o'clock. — ^ra, (time).

From 5 o'clock to 7 o'clock in the evening Karuka, (darkening.)

From 7 o*clock to mid- night Pituna, (quite dark).

— Midnight Piisaie,

From midnight to 4

o'clock Pituna poku ( long

From 4 o'clock to 6 in night.)

the morning Koema piranga (mor-

From 6 o'clock to 9 ning red.) o'clock Koema .

121 —

SALUTATION OR GREETING

no. — The words used by the savages, as greeting, which may correspond to our ''good morning, good evening " etc, are these: — lane koema, good morning, that is, literally: — ow^ morning ; — lane karuka, good evening, i, e: — our evening ; — ianepituna, good night, — lite- rally:—ot^r night.

— The person, the salutation is addressed to, ought to reply in each one of these cases: — Inddue, that is, =^ thine also. This word indaue is= Ind(e)j thine, + aue also.

COLOURS

111. — Those, which they distinguish ordi- narily, are the following : — White Murutinga (in compound

words — ting a, only .

Yellow Tauci, (also yuba) .

Black Piocuna or pituna (in

comp. words — una,on\y.

Red Piranga .

Azure Suikura .

Green lakura .

Grey Tuura .

— 122 —

REVIEW OF VARIOUS AGGLUTINATIVE FORMS

(I). — To mark nmnlber :

11»

Kurumz, sl hoy Kurumi-etd, boys .

Kise, a knife Kise-eta, knives.

Meape, a loaf Meape-eta, loaves.

Pd, the hand Po-etd, hands.

Putyra, a flower Putyra^etd, flowers.

Sesd or tesd (t=s)

an^eye Tesd-itd, eyes.

TaTna, a child Taina-eta, children.

Koahd, this Koahd-eta, these.

Ndhd, that Naha^etd, those.

Naha-amd,i\LdX other Naha-amd'etd, those

others .

Amd, other. Amo-etay others.

Se-mad, mine Se maa-etd, mine(plur).

Ne-mad, thine iVe-maa-^^a,thine(plur).

I-mad, his or hers. . . I-mad-eta, theirs.

Yane mad, our ..... . Yane-mad-etd, ours .

Ae, he, she, it Aetd, they [33] .

— 123 —

( II ). — To mark gender :

<a>

Apegdua, man. . . (*) Kunhd, woman.

Kurumt, hoy Kunhd-ten, girl.

Mu, brother Render a, sister.

Tuba, father Sy, mother.

<e)

Andma-apegdiM,, a

male relation Anama-kunhd, a female

relation. Ydudra-apegduaAog Yaudra-kunhd, bitch. Piwdna- apegdua, he-

cat Piwdna-kunhd, she cat.

Suasume apegdua, he

goat Suasume-kunhd, she

goat. Tapyr a- apegdua, an

ox [31, 3a] Tapyra-kunhd, a cow.

(•) — This form, as we soe, is not agglutinative ; the gender is rendered by distinct names.

— 124 — (III).— To form augmentatives and diminutives

Apegdua, man., Kunhd^ woman

Apegdua-uasUy a tall man, {=Povt.—homenzarrao, Kunhd'Uasu, a big wo- man, (=Port. — mulhe~ rona .

Kurumif boy Kurumi-uasu^B. big boy , (=

Port. — rapagdo.

Oka, house Oka'Uasu,a. large house,

(=Port. — casdo.

Apegdua, man.. Kunhd, woman . . Kurumif boy ....

Oka, house.

[ 35, 36 ]

<e)

Apegdua-'TnirT , a short man , ( = Port. — ho- mensinho .

Kunhd-miri, a short wo- man, (i=Port. — mulher- sinha .

Kurumi-miri , a little boy ( = Port. — rapa^ zinho.

Oka -mirt, Si small house.

— 125 ^

(IV). —To mark degree of quality or to express comparison

<a)

Katu, good Kutu-pyre, better.

Turusu , great , large, broad. . . . Turusu-pyrej greater, lar- ger, broader.

Poooi, bad Poxi-pyre, worse.

MtrJ, small or lit- tle MirT-pyre, less, lesser-

PokUf long PokU'pyrey longer.

Poranga , fine ,

prett)^ Poranga-pyre, finer, pret- tier.

<e)

Katu, good Katu(r)ete, very good .

Maradre, tired . . . Maradre(r)ete, very tired. Poranga, fine. . . . Poranga-ete, very fine or

the finest . Turusu, great. . . . Turusu-ete, very great,

the greatest. [ •?'o ]

— i%6 —

(V). -^ To express state, condition, business or office, etc.

[ 3*r to e^,4-o^ to oT^ ]

Kauty brandy. . . . Kaut-piranga, wine, (pi- ranga, red.

KunhcC, woman. . . Kunhd-kodra-yma, a vir- gin, {=kodra, *' fora- mine,+ 2/^a,sine",= an intact or untouched wo- man, intrega filia . » » ... Kunhd-imena-momoxika-

rdy an adulteress, {ime-

% na, married , + mo-

moxi=^mopoxif to ruin or to viciate,H-(^^Jara,an agent, or person ; = a woman, who violates matrimony.) )►. » ... Kunhd-dba, a gown, (oba,

clothes.

Meg/piy bread. . . . Meape-monhangdray a ba- ker, {monhangM make, -frara, an agent ;===aj3er- son, who makes bread.

— 127 —

Mendara, to marry or matrimony... M endasdra^y ma, a. haohe- lor ; « — mendara, + (s)dra, an agent, -^yma, without or not ;=^a man not m^arried. « « « Menduba, father in-law ; «

mendara, H- uba = tvba, father; i. e: the father of matrimony .

Mird, people Mira-resd-pe, publicly ; «

mlra , + resd = sesd ,

eyes, -f- pe (prep . ) in ;=

in the eyes of the people,

Mird-reapu, an uproar, a mob ; « mird, +

reapu = teapu, noise ; = the noise of people . Mira-rekb-rupy , popular, common;«mra,+

rehb, custom, -h rupy, by ( prep. ) ; = according

to the popular custom.

Mo = monhd , to

make Mo-apyresaba, increase,

augment « mo, + ((^)pyy =.pijre, moYQ,'\-(s]aba, a suffix, like the English ness in the word good^- ness; =to make some- thing become more.

— 128 —

Mokdua or mo- kaba, musket.,

Mokdua or mo- kaba, musket..

Okudu = kudu, to know, or to be learned

Oyaby = yaby, to miss, to mistake.

0-ydk = yok , to separate

Moka-dka^mirT, garrison ; « mokdua, -{-oka, house; -\-miri, small \=a place, cohere - in there are soldiers itith muskets.

Moka-oka-^osu, fortress, « moka-oka, + osu, great ; I e: a place ithere-in there are a great many muskets.

Okudu-yma-osu, a savage man ; « okuau, 4- yma without, 4- osu, great; = a great ignorant man .

Oyapy-akanga-pupe , to commit a blunder ; « ya- py = yaby, + akanga, hea.d, -{-pupe, in (prep.) ; = to miss with the head.

O-yoka-iakanga-sui, to dis- suade ; « yok, + iakanga

129

= akanga, + sui, from

(prep.) ; = to remove out of the head .

0-pisik, to hold, to

grasp 0-ptstk-tayra-rdma, to a-

dopt ; «o-pisih, + iayra, son, + rdma or ardma, to or for (prep.) ; i e: to take for a son .

(*) Par/ a, priest or

friar Paya-etd-roka, a convent ;

« paya-etd, ( plural ) friars, + (r)oka, house ; i, e : a house of friars . » » Paya-nongara,ste^-f8Lther;

« pay a, -+■ nongdra, like or alike ; = a man, like father .

PotdreAo ^Yish. .. Potare-uasu or potare- opai, ambition, covetous- ness ; « potay^e, + uasu great, or opai, every- thing ; r=: to covet all.

C) Corruption of Iho Port, •word jjac, father, 9

— i3o —

Tdba, village or town Taba-pdra, free -man, citi- zen ; « pdra, person [40] ; = who lives in the town.

Tayra, son Tayra-angdba, a god -son ;

« tayra, + ang spirit, H- aha, (suffix) thing ; = a son by the spirit.

Timiu, meal, re- past Timiu-mdnhangdra , a

cook ; < timiu, 4- mo- nhangdra, who makes,

!rinoa&a,the beard. Tinodba-monhangdra, a barber .

(VI).— To mark tenses of verbs :

Xa mondk, I cut.. Xa monok-dn^ I have cut.

Re-kudu , thou

knowest Re-kudu- dn, thou knewst.

Aeo-potdre, he de- sires Ae o-potdre-an, he desired.

lande ia-pdu, we finish lande ia-pduran,we finish- ed.

— i3i —

Pel-pe-saharu,joM

wait Pel pe-saharu^an, you

have waited. Aitd o-mahe, they

look Aitd o-mahl-an, they

looked .

Xa monha, I make Xd monhd-kuri, I will

make. Re-mo -ahu, thou

warmest Ee-mo-aku-kuri, thou wilt

warm . Ae O'iko ike, he is

here Ae o-iho-hwH ike, he will

be here

lane ia-u, we eat

or we drink. . . . lane ia-u-kuri, we will eat or drink . Pe-raso, you take

out Pe-ras6-kuri,yoM will take

out. Aetd o-mondu,ih.ey

send Aetd-o-mondu-kuri, they

will send . [^t to sa]

— l32

(VII) To express the present, past, future agent, or subject :

Monhd, to make. . . Monhd-smm, who makes,

now. ilfon/ia, to make . . Monhd-udra or monhd

pyra, that who has

made . Kanhem, to fly, to run away Kunhem-bdra or kanhem-

pora, who runs away

very often or continually,

— a fugitive man. i?a50/ to takeaway Raso-rdma, about to take

away . — [ For further illustration on these last words, seethe nos. 41,43,44]

ORIGINAL WORDS

113. — The list below contains several terms of Brasilian speech, that we suppose to be, with a few exceptions, original ones, both in form and meaning.

— [ Besides, see *'onomatopaic words"— no. 66 ]•

— i33 -~

A, formerly, the pronoun of the first person sing, and now used, as the personal prefix of the same person . [ss]

Adn (interjection), I saj not.

Ab, to open, to cut, to divide, to turn up ; cf:

— iby-ab, to break up the soil,(= iby, soil, H-a&) ;

— o-ab putyra, the flower expands, ( = o, pars, prefix + ab, -\- putyra, flower ) .

Aba, creature, human being; cf: a&a-n^^, hu- man speech, that is, — the speech of the natives of the country, (= abd,-\-nee, speech) ; — abd-reko, the state or natural condition of man,(=a&a,+re- kd^tekd, state, condition, custom), [ss] ; — aba rod, human flesh, {=abd,-{-r6d = s66, flesh).

Aby, to miss, that is, not to hit the marlc, not to reach or to attain.

Ae, he, this, that, etc. [4*3]

Alb or ai/ba, bad, evil, also an interjection, :== tm fortunate I poor-devil !

Aka, point; — cf: akudi, pointed; — akab, to flght, that is, — to turn the point of lance against someho dy,{=aka,-\-ab, to turn).

Aku, warm, to warm.

Amt to be up, to stand firm, to rise up, to be over-placed or to over -rule.

— i34 —

Ambu (on.), sonorous, sounding, to sound.

Amit to squeeze, to hold fast, to clinch, etc.

Ang, spirit, life, or the origin of life ; — cf: — md~ang, to think, ( = md, particle [n . ae ], 4- ang, spirit) ; and again : — mo-ang, to engender, to give life to.

Apyk or apig, to sit down, seated, steady, to be quiet, etc. ; cf: iby-apik, to sit down, that is, to sit upon the soil, ( = z&i/, land or soil, + ^P2/^).

At, to be born, to occur, to fall, to bring forth, etc . [ ^r ]

Asy^ to be in pain, to ache.

Asu, great, large, big, tall, etc.

Atir^ hill, heap, pile.

,Bae = ae, thing, this, that, etc., etc. [45,46]

Bag, to turn, to move the body; cf: bang, turned up.

Bebe (on.), to fly. [ee]

Bdg (on.), to cleave, to crack, to be parted by force, etc.

Bobdg (frequentative), to shoot, to burst with great noise.

Bur (on.), to spout, to spurt, to spring up or to rouse, to gush out with noise.

— i35 —

E3

Ee, (or ae), yes, I say yes ; — cf: nhee, to tell, to speak, or the speech.

E, (contracted form of ae), the third person, = another ; c/": abciS, a distinct or different person, (neither I, nor thou), («&«, + d=ae).

Em or ema, to empty, to become void.

Endi, to call, to name, to call upon.

Eo or teo, to die, to finish, to succumb or to yield, to fail.

i\u, (on.), to belch, or belching.

Goene or guena[on.), to vomit.

Guey or hey {on.), to toast, or rather, to frolic, frolicking .

Guegue (on. frequentative) ^ to be hoarse, or having a rough voice, — raiccus, or husky.

Hddng, to measure, to compare, to confer. Hesd =sesd, eyes . Hipf to depress, to lower. Hd = so, to go, to go away .

— ^3l:

Iby, land, earth, origin. [4s]

Ike or iky, here, to come in.

Ir ovyr, to get loose, to leave off, and also (used as suffice) to raise, to pick up ; cf: akd-bir, to raise the head ; — kaa-ph\ to clear, to remove herbs or trees ; — supir= tupb% to take up, to lift ; — tipy- kuir, to disti], to take out the liquid, etc.

la?^ (=:ar), to take away, to take by force ; cf : — iara, the owner.

Isig, to glue, to stick, to unite, to adhere, and also to hold, to catch.

ltd, stone, metal, in general, [sr]

ly or yg, water, to flow, [so]

Compare: (*)

« Koriaihish ( Oriental Asia ). . , . i ;

« Semoyedish ( Siberia ) j', or iy ;

« Kamtchahish ( Oriental Asia ). iy, or ya ;

« Mandingoish ( Central Africa ) . . yi ;

« Erse uisg ;

« Irish isg ;

« Alhanean ( South Europe ) ui\

« Arabic ( Oriental Asia ) ma'i ;

[L'etude comparative des langues par le Baron de Merian, Pariz 1828. ]

li^

1^

Kad, herb, wood, leaves of tree, ; cf: ipeka- kudnha or pekad-gucma, medicinal herb, (pe ^=peb, flat, low, -\-kad, herb, +^^fana, to vomit; = an herb, which makes vomit, an emetic agent).

Kdb, to wound, to strike, to hurt, to tight. [ See — akdb ] .

Ka'rz=zka'^i, to order, to force to make, to con- strain, etc.

Kau or kaul, wine, (had, herb, 4- '^^^ drink, potion).

Ker, to sleep 5 sleeping.

Kudu, to know, to understand, etc.

Kmku2 — « See — gii^gue » .

Kdi, to burn, to be ardent.

K6, the plantation, (the place planted).

Km, far, at great distance

Kuir or kuir-huir ( on. frequentative), io rain, to drop, to trickle.

Kud, the waist; cf : /^w-aV, to tie about, to gird, to embrace, etc.

Kuk (on.), to beat, to crack.

— i38 —

ME

Mady thing.

Mae, (or make) to see, to look, (the voice of one who indicates or shows a thing.

Mbae, — « See bae » .

Mdmd=madmad (frequentative), to file, to roll, to put a thing upon others, to make a bundle.

Meme, the same ; that is, continuous, uninter- rupted, as the two syllables repeated — me-me.

Meen or meeng, to give.

Ml or mtmif to hide, or to abscond oneself.

Md, to make, [as]

Mu, brother, a relation.

isr

Nhee, to speak. (See ee). To nhee belong the derivatives ;

KiNee-gu, to swallow the word, or to be reticent. . .

<Neeg-ufu (on.), to mutter, to whisper ;

« Nee get dy to speak too long, ( — neeg, -{-itd^ much, many) ;

«Nee4abyy to speak incorrectly or to speak non- sense.

i39 —

Ob=tohi leaves, in general ; when is used as verb, it means to spread, to stretch, and also, to cover .

Og = d'k, (on.),ioidikQhj force, to pull, to pluck off, and also, which is squeezed out or sprung forth from one thing squeezed.

Pa (on.), to sound, toned, sonorous, etc.

Pad (on.;, to entangle oneself, (the voice of one who has something in the throat), to choke, etc.

Pab or pan, to finish, all is finished, com- pleted;— cf: pahe, all, all together, (pab = pdu,-\- e = ae, this or that thing).

Pa^ or pa/^, to awake, awaked.

Pdnpdn (on.), to spring, to shoot out, to re- bound.

Pe, way, path, track, course ; and from this: peidr, to crossjto athuart a place, to hinder, [^-r]

Peh, flat, low.

« Pebur ( is a derivative of peb ), to swell, swollen,=to become flat.

— HO —

Peteg or petek (on.), to beat, that is, the clapping of hands .

Pi, the skin .

Pig, to cease, to leave off, to give over, to stop.

Pindd or pind, to harpoon, or every thing which is harpooned ; — (pindd is, precisely, the hook or fish -gig).

Pipig (on.), to boil, to gush violenty, and also to scintillate.

«Pirdg (it is a derivative), to peel or to skin, etc; ( pif skin, -^?'dgz=dg, to take, to pull off).

Pita, to stay, to rest in a place.

PtUf soft, smooth.

Po, hand.

Pog=pok{on,), to break into pieces, to burst with great noise.

Pukd (on.), to laugh, that is, to expand, to open one's heart .

Pong (on.j, to sound, to beat, sounding.

Pug (on.), to shoot out, to crack.

Pupu or piipiir (on.), to boil, that is, the water of the pot boiling with noise.

Pupu or pupung (on.), to wound with blows, to strike buffets.

Py, foot, base, seat, sitting, etc.

Pya, heart, and also the thorax.

— 141 —

It

Rd, marked, painted, with stripes.

Rob, to loosen, to unbind or unfasten.

Ry = tii/y the liquid, the humor, sweat, or the current of water, etc.

Ririy, {/frequent a live) to tremble, to shake with cold or on account of fear .

Rob, bitter, to embitter or to bo embittered.

Rag = tog, to cover, covering, etc. , and also to stop.

Sdang, to ape, to imitate the voice of some- body.

Sa-sdi {frequentative), to spread, to scatter about, etc.

Sent, to go out, to be off. — [See Em.']

Sesd = tesdy eyes or sight, the sense of seeing.

Se-sem (frequentative of Sem), to shed, to be dispersed, to empty.

Sey, to need. — [SeeAsy, iot].

Sir, sharp -pointed, keen-edged.

Sog =sdk (on.), to pluck off, to draw violent- ly, etc .

— 142 —

So, to go.

Sddy animal, game, flesh or meat ; and also, to feed or to give for food.

«Sdu (it is a derivative), to bite, that is, to eat meat ; {sod, meat, + u, to eat).

Sy or siQf spring, fountain, origin, mother, a well. [See Ig],

Td, to abound, to exist in plenty, etc.

TO'g=tak (on.) to beat, to make noise.

Tai = sdi, acid ou sour, piquant.

Tang (it is a derivative), new, vigorous, fixed, hard ; (^a, plentous, ■+- ang, life or spirit).

Tdr, to take or to catch . [4t]

Tatdfon.), fire ;= the noise of fire burning wood.

Tata, (on.), strong, solid, having the sound of a well strung chord.

Toto (on.), to palpitate, palpitation.

Torib, merry, joyful, to rejoice, etc.

Tu or tuk (on.), to strike a blow.

Tutu (frequentalive), to wound somebody with blows .

Tuba, father. *' From this word^ we think.

— 143 —

was derived : Tupcln, God ; Tupa=tubat father -j-an, elevation, superiority, or elevated, over- ruling,— i. e: the father above'."

Tete or tuUt body, the human body.

Tim^ the nose.

Uj to eat and drink .

Uh, to lie down, to rest in peace ; {uh means, precisely, the thigh.)

Un, black or negro; cf: — pituna, night. Ungd, to hand, to touch, to handlle, etc. Ur==tur, to come, to arrive.

Xdood (on,), to tear, to cut asunder, etc.

CHAPTER XII

BRASILIAN COMPOSITIONS

11^. — Under this head we arrange ''the Lord's prayer "and a few legends of the Indians, written in Brasilian by Dr . Couto de Magalhaes in his excellent work, 0 Selvagem, to which we

— 144 —

are already indebted for other references made in this book .

We have endeavoured to be literal inbur trans- lation imitating, as nearly as possible, the originalsAT^d the only alterations made are owing to the orthography , that v/e have, especially, adopted .

It is unnecessary to be recollected, that with such a translation w^e mean, principally, to give — " more complete instances " of the usual speech of the Brasilian tribes and thus to enable the reader to apreciate, by himself, the correct application of the rules, we have stated before.

Accordingly, \ye, will present : firstly,^ the original Brasilian compositons, — secondly, the English translation, — thirdly ^ the explanation of the grammatical construction and the meaning of each term separately.

NIIANE RUBA

ll^.-— (^) Nhane Rub a o-iko uad nahd uudk opd;

f) Ne rera o-yo-moete (t)o-ikd;

(^) Re-mehe iane ardma uudka, mame re- ikd;

14^

(^) Ne remimutdra (tjo-oyo-monhd imd- ha-pe, iour (*) yupe;

(^) Re-meM oiij iane ardma iane remiu ara yepe yepe sui-udra ;

f ) Re-mehe ne yron iane angaipdua rese, may-aue ia-mehe kuri iane yron aitd supe inti o-monhd-na hatu tiad iane ardma ;

{^) Inti rexdre, iane lard, ia-monhd poxi mad-etd ;

(^) Repusuru iane op at mad aua sul; Amen.

TRANSLATION

The Lord's prayer

Our Father which art in heaven ; Hallowed be thy name ; Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven ; Give us this day our daily bread ; And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ;

And lead us not into temptation ; But deliver us from evil; Amen.

(*) lour moans cither, or, and also, wieiWicr, 5iO)'. riool 10

— 146 —

Literal Explanation

f) Nhane=iane, our ; Ruba^tuba, father; O'ikd, is; uad, who ['J's ] ; nahd, that; uuctk or ybdk, heaven ; ope, in.

(*) Ni, thy ; rera, name ; 0, pers . prefix, yo, particle [q'''] moete, to venerate ; io-ikd = o-ikd, be (the t is used to denote the third pers. of the Imperative), that is, be hallowed.

Q) Ee-mehe, give; iane, us, ardma, to or for ; uudk, heaven ; mam^, where ; re-ikOy Thou art ;

(*) Ne^ thy ; remimutara, will \ {t sign of the Imperative) 0 (pers. pref. ), yo-mon/ia, — be done; — uuaka-pe, in heaven; iuur, as well as ; yupe = ibype, in earth.

(^) Re-mehe, give ; o^^/, today ; iane ardmat to us ; iane remiu , our bread ; ara yepe yepe suiudra, day each one of.

(^) Re-mehe, give ; ne t/ro^, thy forgiveness ; iane angaipdua rese, our debts for ; may-aue, as well as; ia-mehe kuri, we will give ; zane yron, our forgiveness ; aita supe, them to ; inti O'monhdf not do ; katUy well ; t«aa, who ; iane ardma, us to.

— 147 —

C) Inti re-ccare, not leave ; iane Idray our Lord, ia-monha, we to do; poxi maa-etd, bad actions .

(*) Re-pus^ru, deliver ; iane, us ; opat, all ; maa, things ; aua = ayba, evil, that is, all evil things. Amen.

May pituna o-yo-kudu an. . . .

11 0. lupirungdua rame, inti-mad pituna ; ara anho opai dra ope .

Pituna o-keri o-ikd iy rupy-pe,

Inti-mad so6-e-td\ opaT mad o-nhee .

Boia-Uasu membyra, ipahd, o-yo-menar yepe kurumi-uasu irumo .

Koahd hurumi'Uasu o-rekd masapur miasua katu-rete.

Oiepe dra ope, o-sendi mosapur miasua, o-nhec aitd supe:

« Pekoi pe-uatd, se remirekd inti o-k^ri potare se irumo . »

Miasua o-so'dn.

Arame ae o-sendi wemirekd okeri ardma ae irumo .

— 148 —

Xemireko o-suaoodra : Inti raipitima,

— Inti-mad pituna ; dra anho.

«Se ruba o-reko pituna.

Ee-keri potare rame se irumo, re-mondu pidmo ae par and rupy .

— Ae o-senoi musapur miasua ;

Xemireko o-mundu a'ltd i ruba oka piri o- sd o^iamo ardma yepe tukuman-rainha .

Aitd O'Suka rame Boia-JJasuokadpe, koakd o~mehe aitd supe tukuman-rainha, oyo-sikindu rete, o-nhee :

« Kusukui ana ; — re-raso tenhe ; inti pe^ pirdri kuri^pe-pirariramejpe-kanhumO'kuri I

Miasua o-sd-an ; o^senon teapu tukuman

rainha pepe : ten, ten, ten =tukura-etd

reapu, iui-etd irumo, o-nheeg-ar uad pituna rame,

Miasua o-ikd ramd ana apekatu, oiepe suiudra o-nheei irdmo-udra'etd supe: «Mad' td koakd teapu ?

« la-sd ia make f»

lakumdyua o^nhee ; «Inti'-mad ; — kurumu tahd ia kanhumo kuri ; — pe-apukui,ia^sd ana !»

Aitd O'So an, . Aitd o-sendn o-ikd teapu ; inti a 'kudu mad nhdhd teapu uad.

Aitd o-ikd apekatu retS ana rame, aitd 0-yo^

- 149 -

mo-atiri igara-piterapey opirdri ardmatuku- man rainha, o-mahe ardmamctd o-iko i pope ;

Oiepe o-modyka tatd, — aild o mo-yotyku iraityy osikinau oiko uad tukumctn rainha ; o-kenar.

Aitd O'pirdri 7'ame, kuruty-udrapitima-uasu anal

Arame iakumdyua o-nhed : « la-kanhumo ! «Kunhd moku (s)dka ope o-kudu-an iane ia^ pirdri koahd tukuman-rainha ! »

Aitd o-sd an .

Kunhd moku sdka 6pe o-nhee i mena supe : « Aitd opirari pituna. Kuyr ia-sd ia^saru koema».

Arame opat mad, o-sdin oikd uaa had rupy, oysereo sod ardma, uyrd ardma,

Opai mad, o-sdin oikd parand rupy^ oyet'eo ipekd ardma, pird ardma; TJru-sakanga o-yereo idudra-ete ardma ; pira- kasdra oysereo i igdra irumo ipeka ardma : i akanga ipek-akanga ardma ; — i igdra ipeka sete ardma ^ i apukuitdua oyereo ipeka-retima ardma.

Boia- Uasu membyra o-mahe rameyasi-tdta- uasu, o-nhee i mena supe: «Koema o-iur oiko ; xa so xa moln ara pituna sui. »

— i5o —

Arame ae o-mamdn inimd, o^nhee : «Inde cuyubi kurijO-nheegar ardma,hoema o-iur rame kuri.» Kodi 0-monhd cuyubi : o-mo-piranga i setima uruku irumo, 0-motinga i akanga taba- tinga irumo ; — o-nhe3 ixupe : «Re-nheegar- kuri opai ard ope, koema o-iur rame !

Arire ae o-mamdn inimd, o^nhee : — «Inde inambu kurl.>

0-pisika tanimuka, omburi sese, o-nhee i'Xupe: — «Ine inambu kuri, onhe^ngdr arama kuruka rame,pituna rame,pusaie rame,pituna- poku rame, koema piranga rame,» [ioj>, b]

Ad'Sui uyrd-etd o-nheegdr dra katu ope, koema o-ur rame, omorori arama dra. ^ Mosapur miasua osuka rame, kurumi-uasu o*nhee aitd supe : «Penhe inti pe-supi-udna ! «Penhe pe-pirdri pituna; Penhc pe-monhd udn opai mad okd-yma ! Aarse pe-yereo makakai ardma opai draope ;^'pe-uatd mura-rakanga ru/py eatire ....

« HOW NIGHT BEGAN »

In the beginning there was no night ; — day only was all time;

The night was sleeping in the depth'of waters ; There were no animals ; all things spoke ;

— i5i —

The daughter of the Great Serpent, they tell, had married to a young-man ;

This young-man had three faithful servants.

One day he called these three servants and said to them .

— « Go and walk, because my wife is un- willing to sleep with me ; »

The servants went away ; and then he called his wife to sleep with him ;

The daughter of the Great Serpent replied to him :

**It is night not yet".

The young-man said to her : — There is no night ; day only is all time ;

The young-woman spoke: — « my father pos- sesses the night .

« If you want to sleep with me, bid seek it there on the river . »

The young -man called the three servants ;

The young woman ordered them to go to her father's house and to bring a stone of tucuman; (*)

The three servants went out, arrived at the house of the Great Serpent ; — this gave them a stone of tucuman, completely closed, and said to

[*) It is a Brasilian palm -tree.

— ID2 —

them : — « Here it is; take it. — Take care! Do not open it , otherwise all of you shall perish ! »

The servants returned, and Avere hearing noise within the stone of tucumdn, thus : — tin, tin, tin, xi.., XI, xi..., it was the note of the cricket and of the small frogs, who sing at night.

When they were far already, one of them said to his companions : — « Let us see what noise is this?»

The pilot observed : « No ; else, we shall be lost. Let us go away ; — pull the oars ! »

They went on, and continued to hear that noise within the stone of tucuman, and could not understand what noise was that ;

When they were far off, they assembled in the middle of the canoe, — lighted a fire, melted the pitch, which covered the stone, and opened it.

Suddenly all grew dark ! ■ The pilot, then, said: « We are lost! The young-woman, at home, knows already, that we opened the stone of tucuman ! »

They went on their voyage .

The young-woman at home said then to her husband: —

« They delivered night; Let us wait for the morning . »

— i53 ~

At this time all the things, which were scatter- ed throughout the wood , became transformed into animals and birds ;

The things, which were scattered throughout the river, were transformed into goose and fish.

From the basket was engendered the panther ; the lisher with his canoe was transformed into a goose: — from his head sprang the head and bill of the goose; — from the canoe sprang the body of the goose ; — from the oars sprang the legs of the goose.

— The daughter of the 6^rea^ Serpent, when she saw Venus (star), said to her husband: « Dawn approaches ; I go to separate the day from the night . »

Then she rolled up a thread, and said : « Thou shalt be a cuyubin. » So she made the cuyiibin. She painted the head of the cuxjubin white with tahatinga (clay) ; she painted his legs red with urucu (a red fruit), and, then, she said : « Thou shalt sing, for ever, when morning breaks . »

— She rolled up, again, the thread, scattered ashes over it, and said: « Thou shalt be inambu, to sing during the whole time of the night and of the dawn . »

— Thenceforward, all birds have sung at

— i54 —

their determined times, and all together sing at dawn to rejoice the beginning of day . . .

— When the three servants arrived, the young-man said to them : — « You were not faithful ; you opened the stone of tucumdn ; you set free [night ; all things were lost, — and you, yuorselves, who shall be transformed into monkeys, — and shall walk, for ever, climbing on the branches of trees !

Literal translation

lupirungdua rami, inti-mad pituna ; ara anho opai dra ope .

Beginning when, nothing night : day alone all time at .

Pituna O'kerl o-ikd ly rupy-pe.

Night slept it was water's-depth within .

Inti-mad so6-etd ; opai mad o^nhee .

Nothing animals ; all things spoke.

— i55 —

Boia-Uassu membyra, ipahd, o-yo-menar yepe kurumi-uasu irumo .

Serpent -Great's daughter, they tell , married one boy big with.

Koahd kurumi-uasu o-rekd mosapur miasua katu-rete.

This boy big had three servants faithful very.

Oiepe ara ope^ o-senoi mosapur miasua ^ o-nhee ait a supe:

One day at, he called three servants, said them to :

'' Pekoe, pe-uatd ; se remirekd inti o-keri pot are se irumo . "

« Go, walk ; my wife not sleep will me with.*

Miasua o-so-an.

Servants went .

Arame ae o-sendi wemirekd oheri ardma ad irumo:

Then he called his wife sleeping for, him with.

Xemirekd o-suaxdra : Inti rat pituna .

Wife replied : Not yet night.

Inti-mad pituna ; ara anho.

Nothing night ; day alone .

Se ruha o-rekd pituna.

My father has night .

— i56 --

Ee-keri polare rame se irumo, re-mondu pidmo ae parand rupy .

Thou sleep to wantest if me with, bid seek it river on.

Ae O'Senoi mosapur miasua ;

He called three servants ;

Xemirekd o-mondu aiid t ruba oka piri, O'Sd opiamo ardma yepe tukuman rainka.

Wife bade them her father's house to, to go to seek for one tucuman-stone.

Aitd O'Suka rame, Boia-Uasu oka ope, koahd o-meM aitd supe oiepe tukumafi^rainha oyo-sykindu rete, o-nhee:

They arrived when, Serpent-Great's house at, this gave them to one tucuman-stone closed quite, she said :

** Kusukui ana ; re-rasd tenhe ; intipe-pirari- huri; pe-pirdri rameype-kanhumo kuri "

« Here it ; take with you ; not open shall ; open if, you be lost shall. »

Miasua o-sd an, o-senon teapu tukuman^ rainha pdpe : — ten-ien, ten-ten.,. = tukura-' itd reapu iui-etd irumo, o-nheegar uadpituna rame.

Servants went away, they heard noise tucu- man-stone within: — tin-tin, ten-tem...= cricket's noise small-frogs with, sing who night when.

— 1 57 —

Miasua o-iko rame ana apekatu, oiepe sui- udra o-nhe2 i irumo-uara-etd supe: '* Mad td koahd teapu ? — la-sd ia-mahe ?

Servants were when already far off, one of them said his companions to : — ** What this noise ? We go we see ?

lakumayua o-nhee : "Inti-mad ; kurumu tahd ia-hanhumo kuri; — pe-apukui, ia-sd ana!

Pilot said : * ' Never ; otherwise we be lost shall; pull the oars, let us go away!

Aitd O'Sd an.

They went away.

Aitd o-senon o-ikd teapu; inti O'kudu mad nhahd teapu uda.

They hear they were noise, not they understood that noise what.

Aita o-iko apekatu-rete an rami, aitd o-yo- moatiri igara-pitera ope, opirdri ardma mad olkd i pope . . .

They were far off when, they grouped canoe- middle in, open to tucunam -stone, see to what was its inside.

Oiepe 0'7nodyk tatd; aitd o-moyotiku iraity, o-siklndu O'ikd uad tukuman-rainha ; — o-kenar.

One lighted fire ; they melted the pitch, cove- ring was which tucuman-stone ; they opened...

— i58 —

AUd opirdri rame, kuruty-uara pituna-uasu dna!

They opened when, suddenly night every where !

Aram4 iakumdyua (hnhed : " la-kanhumo! Kunhd-mohu sdha ope — o -kudu- an iane ia-^zrari ko-akd tukuman-rainha ! "

Then pilot said: "We are lost! Young woman house at knew already we opened this tucuman-stone !"

Aitd o-sd an.,.

They went on .

Kunhd-moku soka ope o^nheij i mena supe : « Aitd o-pirdri pituna.

Young-woman house at, said her husband to: < They opened night.

« Kuur ia-sd ia-saru koema. »

« Now, we go we wait morning. »

Arame opai mado-sain, o-ikduadkad rupy, oyereu sod ardma, uyrd ardma.

Then all things scattered, were which wood throughout, transformed animals into, birds into.

Opdi'-mad o-sain, o-ikd uadparand rupy, oyereu ipeka ardma, pird ardma.

All things scattered , were which river throughout, transformed goose into^ fish into .

— i59 —

Urvrsahanga oyereu idudra-ete ardma; pird- kasdra oyereu i igdra iromo ipeka ardma: i akanga, ipeka akanga ardma; — i igdra, ipeka-sete arama ; — i apukuitdua oyereu ipeka retima ardma .

Basket became transformed panther into; fisher was transformed his canoe with goose into : his head goose'shead into ; his canoe goose's body into ; his oars were transformed goose's legs into.

Boia-JJasu membyra o-mahe rame yasi-tatd- udsUy o-nhee i mena supe : « Koema o-iur o-iko; xa so xa moin ara pituna sui . »

Serpent-Great's daughter saw when star-fire great, said her husband to : « Dawn comes it is, I go I divide day night from . »

Arame at o-mamaninimo, o-nhee: n Inde cuyubi kuri, o-nhee g-ar ardma koema O'-ur rame kuri. » Koai o-monhd cuyubi : —

Then she rolled up a thread, said: « Thou cuyubin shalt, sing to morning come when shall » . So she made cuyubin .

0-mopiranga i setima uruku irumo, — omo- tinga i akanga tabatinga irumo; o-nhee i-xupe : — <Re-nheeg-ar kuri opai ara ope koema o-iur rame.»

She whitened his head white clay with, she reddened his legs urucu with; she said him to :

— i6o —

« Thou sing shalt all time at, morning comes when.

Arame ae o-mamdninimo, o-nhee: « Inde inamhu kuri.»

After she rolled up the thread, said : « Thou inambii shalt.

O'pisika tanimuka , onibure sese, o-nhee i'Xupe: « Ine inambu kuri, onheeg-ar arama, karuka rame^ pituna rame, pusaie rame , pituna-poku rame , koema piranga rame

[l09, b ] .

She took ashes, scattered on it, said him to : « Thou inambu shalt, sing to, evening at, and during the whole night. . . [109, b].

Aa-sui uyrd-etd o-nheegar ara katu ope^ koema o-iur rame, omororp arama dra .

Thenceforward birds sing times determined at, and morning comes when, rejoice to day..

Mosapur miasua o-suka rame, kurumi-uasu o-nhee aitd supe: « Penhe inti pe-supi-uan! « Penhe pe-pirdri pituna . Penhe pe-monhd udn opai-mad okayma ; aarse pe-yereu ma- kakdi arama opaidra ope; pe-uatd mura- rekanga rupy eatire /....»

Three servants arrived when, young -man said them to: « You not faithful were! You de- livered night* You made all things be lost;

-. i6i -

therefore you shall become monkeys into, ever for ; you shall walk tree- branches over climb- ed! ... »

KUNHA-MOKU 0-SO UAA 0-SIKARI MENA

Kunhia-moku, Mykura

11*^. Oiepe kunhd-moku o-nhee i sy supe : « Xa so xa sikari se mena ;

« Xa purardre rete iu-masy ! »

Ae O'Sd an ; o-suka o-dn, mame o-ikd mdsa^ pur pe, O'puranu : mad-td Inaye pe ? (*)

Oiepe pe ope, ae o-mahe inambu-rdua ; ara^ me ae o-maite-odn : — Koahd Inaye pe,

O'So-dnae 7mpy .

Opausdpe, O'yo-iuanti oka, mame o-ikd yepe uduni o-apyk-oikd uad tat a remehupe ; o-nhee :

Ine sera Inaye sy ?

JJdimi o-suaxdra : — Ixe ae tenhe .

{*) Inayeh tlio Brasilian name of a sparrow-hawk, vory beautiful and rapacious. And as it seems natural, what is fine and able to got plenty of food is considered bj- the savage, as the richest and Iho best one.

11

— l62 —

Kunhd^moku o^nhee : Xa iur ae piri xa menar ardma ae irumo .

Udimi o^nhee : — se mbyra mira poxi-reU ae ; aa-rese xa sd xd iumimi ine,

Kdahd udimi inti Inaye sy ; Mykura (*) sy ae,

Karuka rame i nibyra o-suka-odn ; o-rure- an xemidra^ = uird^etd.

I sy o-mongaturu aitd o-u arama,

Aitd O'U o-ikd rame, i sy o -pur anu i-xui : 0-suka rame oiepe amo tetama-udra, mdy tahd re-reko ae ?

Mykura o-suaxdra : Xa sendiae o-u ardma iane irumo .

Aram4 uaimi O'Senoi kunhd moki)^, o-iumimi o-ikd uad,

Kunhd-moku o-u-dn aitd irumo.

Mykura sorib o-ikd, maa-rese kunhd-moku poranga rete,

Pituna ope, mykura o- sd rame^ oker ardma kunhd moku irumo, ae ompu-dn ae o-nhee :

Intixa iend potdre ne irumo, maa-rese inema rete ine.

Koema rame, uaimi o-mondu rame kunhd moku o-iuuka iepea, kunhd moku o-iaudu-dn.

(*) Animal like a fox.

- m

II

KunM moku, Urubu

0-suha mosapur pe ope, o-sd amo rupy ;

0-suka oka ope, o-iuuanti amo udimi irmno;

0-puranu i-xui: Inde serd Inaye sy ?

Udimi O'Suaxdra : — loce ae tenhe.

Kunhd moku o-nhee: oca ur ae piri, xa menar ardma ae irumo .

Udimi onheJ : Xa so xa iumimi inde, se mbijra poxi rete sese.

Koahd udimi uruhusy.

Karuka rame, i mhyra o-suka ; o-rure xemidra,^=itdpuru mirTetd, onhche i sy supe:

« Kusukui pird miritd, se sy. >

I sy o-mongaturu ximidra.

Aitd o-u oikdrame, ae o-puranu:

Audsupe o-suka uad amd tetdma sui, mad-td re-monhd i-xupe ?

Urubu o-suaxdy^a: xa senoi ae o-u ardma lane irumo.

Arame i sy o- senoi kunhd -moku.

Urubu sorib-ete an, kunhd-moku poranga ret^ resd.

— 164 —

Pituna dpe, ad o-sd 7'amS o-yeno ae v^umOf kunhd-moku ompu-dn, inema res4 ae.

Amo koema opdy udimio-mondu ramh kunhd moku o-iuuka arama taped, hunhd-moku O'iauaudn, ...

Ill

« Kunha-moku, Inaye »

Ad O'Suka rame mosapur pe dpe, 0 -so amo rupy.

0-sUka oka ope, o-mahe yepe udimipO' ranga-rete, o-puranu i^xui : — Ine Inaye sy serd ?

Udimi o-suaxdra : Ixe ae tenhe.

Kunhd -moku o-nhe^ : xa-ur ae piri xa menar arama ae irumo.

Uaimi o-nhee : xa so xa-iumimi inde ; se mbyra mira poxt-rete I

Karuka rame , mbyra o-suka ; o-rure ximidra, = ulrd-mm-td .

I sy omon-gaturu uira mirltd aitd ou arama,

Altd ou O'iko rame, i sy o^puranu i-xui :

Aud supe osuka uad rame amo tetdma sui, mad id re-monhd i-xupef

— i65 —

Inaye o-suaxdra : — Xa-senoi ae on arama iane irumo.

Arame udimi o-senoi kunhd-moku.

Inaye sorib rete, kunhd moku poranga rete rese.

Aetd O'keri^an iepe-uasu.

Amo ara-opiy TJriibu o-suka Inaye oka 6pe, O'Sikari ardma kunhd moku.

Aitd omara-monhd-oan rete kunhd-moku rese .

Inaye ompuk' an Urubu akanga.

I sy omo-aku iy, mo-asuk i akanga.

ly saku rete odn; aarese i akangasaua-yma opitd ara ope

'* THE YOUNG- WOMAN WHO GOES TO SEEK HUSBAND

** The Young- woman and the Fox "

One day, a young-woman said to her mother: ** I go to seek my husband ; I am feeling great hunger".

She went away ; arrived wherein there were three paths, and asked : — which is the Inaye's path?....

— i66 —

In the one path, she saw some feathers of inambu ; then she thought: — This must be the Inaj^'s path.

She went along this.

At last, she met a house, where was an old woman seated at the fire-side, and asked to her: ** Are you the Inaye's mother? "

The old -woman replies : — I, myself, yes.

The young-woman said : I come to marry with him.

The old woman said: — ** My son is a very troublesome fellow ! Therefore I go to hide you."

This old woman was not the mother of Inay^, but she was the Fox's mother.

In the evening, her son came back, and brought his game, = birds.

His mother tempered them for eating; and when they were eating, the mother asked to son : — if now somebody came here from other land, how should you treat him ?

The Fox replied: — I would call him to eat with us.

Then the old woman called the young-woman, who was hidden.

This ate with them .

The Fox became very content, because she was very beautiful .

— 167 —

At night, the Fox went to sleep with the young- woman ; but this expelled him, saying, that he was too stinking .

When in the morning the old woman bade the young- woman seek fuel, this went away, and.. .

II

« The Young-woman and tlie Carrion-Crow. »

She arrived at three paths, and went through another . . .

At last, she arrived at a house, where she met other old woman, to whom she asked : — Are you the Inaye's mother?

The old woman replied : Yes, I am .

The young- woman said: I come to marry with him.

The old -woman said: I go to hide you, be- cause my son is a very troublesome fellow !

This old-woman was the Carrion-crow's mo- ther.

At evening, her son arrived ; he brought small worms, and said to his mother: **Here is small fish, mother".

His mother tempered the prey.

— i68 —

When they were eating, she spoke: — If some- body came now from other land, how should you treat him ?

The Carrion-crow replied: I would call him to eat with us.

Then his mother called the young- woman.

The Crow became very content, because she was very fine.

At night, he went to sleep with the young - woman, but this expelled him on account of his stinking.

In the other morning, when the old -woman bade the young-woman seek fuel, she run away . . .

Ill

« The Young- woman and tlie Sparrow-hawk. »

She arrived, again, at three paths, and she went through another. . .

She arrived at a house, where she met a fine old- woman, to whom she asked : Art thou the Inaye's mother?

The old-woman replied; Yes, I am.

The young- woman said: I come to marry with him.

The old-woman said : I go to hide you, because my son is a very troublesome fellow !

At evening, the son arrived and brought his game, = many small birds.

His mother prepared the birds for their eating; and when they were eating, she asked to him : « If somebody came from other land, how should you treat him ? »

Inaye replied: I would call him to eat with us. Then the old -woman called the young- woman.

Inaye became very glad, because she was very fine.

They slept together.

In the other day, the Carrion-crow arrived at Inaye's house, looking for the young-woman. They fighted much on account of the young- woman.

Inaye brake open the head of the Crow.

The mother of the latter wr.rmed water, washed his head ; but the water was too warm, and, therefore, his head became bald, since then. .

i7o —

Literal translation I

< KUNHA-MOKU, MYKURA >

« The Young-woman and tlie Fox »

Oiepe kunhd-moku o-nhee i sy supe : « Xa so coa sikari se mena ;

A young-woman said her mother to : « I go I seek my husband ;

« Xa purardre rete iu-masy ! »

«I feel great hunger. »

Ae O'Sd an ; o-suka o^dn, mame o-iko mdsa- pur pS, O'-puranu : — Mad-ta Inaye pe ? (*)

« She went away ; arrived, where there were three paths, she asked: — Which Inay^'s path ?

Oiepe pe ope, ae o-mahe inambu-rdua ; ara- me ae o-^maite-oan : — Koahd Inaye pe.

One path in, she^sees inambu*s feathers ; then she thought : This Inaye's path.

0-sd*^dn ae rupy .

She went along this through .

n Jnaj/^ is the Brasilian name of a sparrow-hawk.

— lyi —

Opaicsdpe, o-yO'iuanti oka, mame O'ikd yepd udimi 6-apik-oikd uad tatd remehupe ; o-nhce :

At last, she met a house, where was one old woman seated was who fire-side at ; she said :

« Ine sera Inaye sy ? »

« You Inay(^'s mother ? »

Udimi O'Suaoodra : — Ixe ae tenhe

The old-woman replied : — I myself yes .

Kunhd-moku o-nh^c : Xa iur ae piri xa menar ardma ae irumo .

The young -woman said : — I come him to, I to marry him with.

Uaimi o-nhee: — se mbyra mira poxi-retd ae ; aa-rese xa sd xd iumimi ine .

The old woman says : my son bad very he ; therefore I go I hide you .

Kdahd udimi inti Inaye sy ; Mykura (*) sy ad.

This old woman not Inaye's mother ; Fox's jnother she .

Karuka rame, i mbyra o-suka-odn; O'rure- an xemidra, — uira-etd .

Evening when, her son came back ; he brought his game, — birds .

(•) Animal like a fox.

— 172 —

I sy o-mongaturu aitd o-u arama.

His mother tempered them eating for.

Aitd O'U O'ikd rame, i sy o-puranu i-xui : 0-suka rame oiepe amo tetama-udra, may tahd re-rekd ae ?

They eating were when, his mother asked him to : Arrives when one other land from, how you treat him ?

Mykura o-suaxdra : Xa sendi ae o-u arama iane irumo .

Fox replies : I call him eating for us with.

Arame uaimi o-senoi hunhd moku, o-iumimi O'ikd uad.

Then the old-woman calls the young-woman, hidden was who .

Kunhd-moku o-u -an aitd irumo.

The young- woman ate them with.

Mykura sorib o-ikd, maa-rese kunha-moku poranga rete.

Fox content was, because young woman fine very.

Pituna ope, Mykura o-sd rame, oker ardma kunhd moku irumo, ae ompu-dn ae o-nhee :

Night at, the Fox went when sleep to, the young woman with, she expelled him, she said ;

Inti xa-ienopotdre ne irumo j maa-rese inema rdtd ine.

- 173-

Not I to sleep will you with, because stinking very much you .

Koema rami, uaimi o^mondu rame kunhd moku O'iuuka iepea, kunhd mokuo-iaudu- an.

Morning when, the old woman ordered when the young woman to seek fuel, the young- woman went away ....

II

< K.UNHA MOKU, URUBU >

« The Young-woman and the Carrion-crow »

O'Suka mosapur pe 6pe, o-sd amo rupy ;

She arrived three paths at, she went another through ;

0-siika oka ope, o-iuuanti amd uaimi irumo ;

She arrived house at, met other old-woman with ;

0-puranu i-xui: Inde sera Inaye sy'^.

She asked her: You Inaye's mother?

Uaimi o-suaoodra : — Ixe ae ienhe.

The old -woman replies: I myself yes.

Kunhd moku o-nhee : xa ur ae piri, xa menar ardma ae irumo .

— 174 —

The young woman said : I come him to, I marry him with.

Udimi onhee: Xa so xa iumimi inde, se mbyra poxi rete sesS .

The old -woman said : I go 1 hide thee, my son creature rude very because .

Koahd udimi XJruhu sy .

This old- woman Carrion-crow's mother.

Karuka rame, i mbyra o^suka ; o-rure xemidra,= itapuru mlrJetd, onhee i sy supe:

Evening when, her son arrived ; he brought game, = worms small, he said his mother to :

« Kusukui pird mirTta,se sy. >

«Here is small fish, my mother.*

I sy o-mongaturu ximidra.

His mother tempered the prey.

Aitd o-U'Oikb rame, ae o-puranu :

They eating were when, she asked:

Aud supe o-suka wad amd tetdma sui, mad-td re-monha i^xupe ?

Him to arrives who other land from, how do you him with ?

Urubu O'Suaxdra : xa senoi ae o-u ardma iane irumo.

The Crow replies: I call him eating for us with.

- 175-

Aramii sy O'Senoi kunkd-moku.

Then his mother called the young- woman.

Urubu sorib-ete an, kunhd-moku poranga rete rese.

The Crow glad very was, young-woman fine very because of.

Piiuna ope, ae o^so rame o-yeno ae irumo ; kunhd-moku ompu-dn incma rese ae.

Night at, he went when, to sleep her with ; the young-woman expelled him, stinking for his.

Amo kosma dpe^udimi o-mondu rame kunhd moku O'iuuka arama taped y kunhd-moku o-iauau-dn. . . .

Other morning at, the old -woman ordered when, the young- woman seek to fuel,the young- woman went away ....

Ill

< KUNHA-MOKU, INAYE>

<( The Young-woman and tlie Sparraw-hawk »

Ae osuka rame mosapur pe 6pe, o^so amd rupy.

She arrived when three paths at, she went other through .

— 176 — ■

O'SUka oka dpe, o-mahe yepe udimi poran- ga-rete, o-puranu i-xui : — In6 Inaye syserd ?

She arrived a house at, saw one old-woman fine very, she asked her: Thou Inaye's mother?

Udimi O'Suaxdra: Ixe ae tenhe.

Old-woman replies : I myself yes .

Kunhd-moku o-nhee : ooa^ur ae piri oca menar arama ae irumo.

Young-woman said : I come him to, I marry to him with.

Uaimi o-nhee : oca so oca^iumimi inde; se mhyra mira pooct-rete!

Old-woman says : I go I hide thee ; my son a fellow troublesome very ! ^ Karuka rame , mbyra o-suka ; o-rure ocimidra, = uira-mirT -setd .

Night at, the son arrived ; he brought game, = birds small many .

I sy omon-gaturu uira miritd aitd ou ardma.

His mother prepared the birds small their eating for .

Aitd ou o-ikd 7^ame, i sy o-puranu i-xui:

They eating were when, his mother asked him :

Aud supe O'Suka uad rame amo tetdma sui, mad td re-monhd ixu-pe^

Him to arrives who if other land from, how you do him to?

— 177 —

Inaye o-suaxdra : — Xa senoi ae ou ardma iane irumo.

Inaj^ replied: I call him eating for us with.

Arameudimi o-senoi kunhd-moku.

Then the old woman called the young-woman.

Inaye sorib rete, kunhd moku poranga rete rese,

Inay^ glad very, the young-woman fine very for.

Aetd o-ker-an iepe-uasu.

They slept together.

Amo ara-ope, Urubu o-suka Inaye oka ope, o-sikari ardma kunhd moku.

Other day at, the Crow arrived Inay^'s house at, looking for the young- woman.

Aitd omara-monhd'Oan rete kunhd^m^oku rese.

They fighted much, the young-woman be- cause of.

Inaye ompuk-dn Urubu akanga .

Inaye brake open the Crow's head .

/ sy omo-aku iy, mo-asuk i akanga .

His mother warmed water, washed his head .

Iy saku rete odn ; aarese i akanga-saua-yma opitd ard ope

The water was too warm ; therefore his head bald became, since then

1-2

— lyS —

CHAPTER XIII

CONCLUSION

11^. — From all that has been said before, we think, we are enabled to draw the following general conclusions :

(i) That in the Brasilian language all the words are invariable ; [a-^]

(ii) That the distinction of number and gender in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns (except the personal) are indicated, either by special words or by postpositions, and other formative elements ; [so to 34, e-y to 69* 74 to 80]

(hi) That the persons of verbs are designated by means of prefixes which are, so to say, glued to them, with the same value and signification, as the personal suffixes of the Latin language ;

(iv) That the moods and tenses (the Present Indicative excepted) are expressed by the use of

— ^79 ""

special particles, which are placed after the ver- bal root ; [86 to so]

(y) That, although a noun or an adjective of quality may be used, as a verb, and vice-versa, still we find, in general, quite distinct, all the parts of speech, such as : noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, postposition (prep.), con- junction and interjection ; [st, os, loe]

(vi) That predicative roots are entirely distinct from demonstrative ones, and that they are never confounded in their applications.

(vii) That in derivative or compound-words it is always easy to make the decomposition of the radical and of the formative elements, although there may occur frequent euphonical letters .

— Therefore, we consider these facts and other which were presented before, as a proof, quite sufficient, that the Brasilian speech ought to be rightly classed, as belonging to the family of agglutinative tongues.

CORRIGENDA

4>

Paos.

Ns.

Errata

71. Tv. 80. 81. 01. > . 96.

im.

103. HO.

3 dostingulsh.

6 language saro..

y indu-ctions... .

lO knwon

±2 can, rightly

16 tho-rcfore

» gone-ral

2i distinguished.,

38 as ,

ST erciprocally...

39 (particle)

66 to to dig

69 kunhd

'M tventy

T3 that

sa baptised;

» the those

91 so-coll-

» liing

96 equal 0

9S a it

99 postpo-islions.

103 t-inhiuM

Ill 103 ixkiuki.

113.

121. 125. 140. 145.

104 au-xialiary.

verbsfarc. . .

no lito-rally...

113 lesser-

113 violenty

115 C) either, or,.

» » meither

Corrected

distinguish languages are induc-tions

: known

: can rightly

: Ihere-foro

: goner-al

: distinguished,

: an s.

: reciprocally

: particle)

: to dig

: kunha

: twenty

: that,

: baptised,

: those

: so-call-

: living

: equal to

I it

: poslpo-sitions

: t-ini o-iukd

: ixi re-iukd

: aux-iliary

: verb stare

z lit-crally

147. 148. 154. 157. 159.

116.

pekoT . .

pipi

yuorsolves.

maa

shoad..

: violently : either, or, : neither

pekoT,

: pdpk

: yourselyes

: mahB

: s head

i

e

iisriDEis:

CHAPTER I

CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 1

(1) The monasyllabic period 2

(2) The agglutinative period 3

(3) The inflectional period 7

The study of language , 10

The Bras. lang. and its position 13

CHAPTER II

PHONETIC PRINCIPLES li)

Sounds and letters 22

Consonants 23

Vowels 25

Diphthongs 28

Table of the alphabetic sounds 29

Thonotic alterations 30

Permutation of sounds 31-

Suppression & addition of letters 33

CHAPTER III

PARTS OF SPEECH 36

Accidence or the forms of words 37

Gender, number and case 40

Diminutive and augmentative 43

Derivation and formation of nouns etc 44

Noun-suffixes 45

Agglutination of words 49

Longer-agglutinative words 55

Onomatopaic words 64

II

CHAPTER IV

ADJECTIVES 65

Accidence of Bras, adjectives 67

Gender and number 68

Comparison 63

Numerals 70

Ordinals 72

CHAPTER V

PRONOUNS 73

Personal pronouns 73

Demonstrative pron 74

Interrogative pron 75

Relative pronouns 76

Possessive pron 76

Indefinite pron ^ 77

CHAPTER VI

VERBS 79

Voice of verbs 80

Reflexive verbs 8£

Transitive verbs 81

Prono. subjects & pers. prefixes 83

Mood 84

Tenses 83

The negation and interrogation 89

Anomalous verbs 90

Remarks 92

Formation of verbs 94

Participles 97

CHAPTER VII

POSTPOSITIONS 97

Ill

CHAPTER VIII

ADVERBS 101

Adverbs of place 101

Adverbs of affirmation, etc, etc 103

Adverbs of time 105

Adverbs of manner, quality, etc 106

CHAPTER IX

CONJUNCTIONS 107

CHAPTER X

INTERJECTIONS 108

CHAPTER XI

MISCELL. RULES & REMARKS 109

Syntax of the subject 109

Syntax of the object Ill

Syntax of the verb , HI

The construction of some verbs 115

To need and (to) will 116

Est meum, est tuum 117

Division of time 118

Salutation or greeting 121

Colours 121

Review of agglutinative forms 122

Original words 132

CHAPTER XII

BRAZILIAN COMPOSITIONS 143

Nhane Ruba. . . 144

May pituna o-yo-kuau-an 147

Kunha mokii o-sd uaa & 161

CHAPTER XIII

CONCLUSION 178

CORRIGENDA , , 181

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